Galaxy Digital (GLXY) S-4/ARegistration of securities issued in business combination transactions (amended)

This Registration Statement contains a prospectus that will be used as a management information circular (the “Management Circular” or the “Management Circular/Prospectus”) in connection with (i) the solicitation of votes of Galaxy Digital Holdings Ltd. (“GDHL”) shareholders for the special meeting of GDHL shareholders, which shall constitute an extraordinary general meeting for purposes of GDHL’s memorandum and articles of association (the “Meeting”), being held to approve (A) GDHL’s deregistration under the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) and domestication under Section 388 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, pursuant to which the jurisdiction of incorporation of GDHL will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (the “Domestication”) and GDHL will be renamed Galaxy Digital Holdings Inc. (GDHL following the Domestication, “GDH Delaware”), and all of the issued and outstanding Class A ordinary shares of GDHL will convert, automatically and by operation of law and without cancellation or redemption, into an equivalent number of shares of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware, and (B) certain related corporate reorganization transactions and amendments of applicable governing documents as described in this registration statement (including the amendment, prior to the Domestication, of GDHL’s existing share capital and memorandum and articles of association to authorize and provide for the issuance and terms of up to 500 million Class B ordinary shares of GDHL) (collectively with the Domestication, the “Reorganization”) and (ii) the registration of shares of Class A common stock of Galaxy Digital Inc. (formerly known as Galaxy Digital Pubco Inc.) (“Pubco”) to be issued to holders of GDH Delaware Class A common stock (i.e., the holders of GDHL ordinary shares prior to the Reorganization) upon consummation of the merger of GDH Delaware with and into Pubco, with Pubco continuing as the surviving entity (the “Reorganization Merger”) and shareholders of GDH Delaware receiving shares of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of Pubco in exchange for their shares of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of GDH Delaware, respectively.

Each of the Proposals is more fully described in the accompanying Management Circular, which we urge each GDHL shareholder to review carefully. The full text of the resolutions approving the Proposals is attached to this Management Circular as Appendix “1”.

The Domestication, the Governing Documents Amendment, the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment, the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences and the Issuance of Class B Common Stock are collectively referred to in this Management Circular as the “Reorganization”.

Each of the Proposals that must be approved by special resolution must be approved, as a matter of Cayman Islands law, by the affirmative vote of not less than two-thirds of the Shareholders present in person or virtually or represented by proxy and entitled to vote at the Meeting. Each of the Proposals that must be approved by ordinary resolution must be approved, as a matter of Cayman Islands law, by the affirmative vote of a majority of the Shareholders present in person or virtually or represented by proxy and entitled to vote at the Meeting. While the Issuance of Class B Common Stock Proposal is conditional on the Domestication Proposal, the Governing Documents Amendment Proposal, the Proposed Organizational Documents Proposal and the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences Proposal, collectively, the Adjournment Proposal is not conditional on the approval of any other Proposal.

GDHL has made arrangements to enable shareholders to attend and vote virtually at this Meeting. Registered Shareholders and proxyholders (including non-registered Shareholders who have appointed themselves as proxyholder) will be able to listen to the Meeting, ask questions and vote at the Meeting online in real time. Non-registered shareholders who have not duly appointed themselves as proxyholder will be able to attend the Meeting virtually as guests, but guests will not be able to vote at the Meeting.

We would advise that Shareholders do not attend the Meeting in person at the meeting location and instead attend the virtual meeting. Those wishing to attend and vote at the Meeting will need to ensure that they remain connected to the Meeting at all times in order to vote when balloting commences, and it is such persons’ responsibility to ensure internet connectivity for the duration of the Meeting.

We are providing the accompanying Management Circular to Shareholders in connection with the solicitation of proxies to be voted at the Meeting and at any adjournment of the Meeting.

The Board formed a special committee of independent directors comprised of all the directors of GDHL, other than Michael Novogratz, Damien Vanderwilt, Michael Daffey, Richard Tavoso and Jane Dietze (the “Special Committee”), to consider the Reorganization. The Special Committee retained independent counsel and an independent financial advisor.

If you have any questions or need assistance voting your shares, please contact GDHL’s strategic shareholder advisor and proxy solicitation agent, TMX Investor Solutions Inc., by email at INFO_TMXIS@tmx.com, by telephone at 1 (800) 332-4904 (toll free within North America) or for outside North America, call direct at (416) 682-3825.

Galaxy’s business is operated through GDH LP and its subsidiaries. Prior to the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger (as defined below and described in further detail in this prospectus), GDHL, the ordinary shares of which are listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange, held a minority economic interest in GDH LP via its ownership of Class A Units of GDH LP, accounted for as an equity method investment. Following the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, GDHL intends, subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, to effect (i) a deregistration under the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) and a domestication under Section 388 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, pursuant to which the jurisdiction of incorporation of GDHL will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (the “Domestication”) and GDHL will be renamed Galaxy Digital Holdings Inc. (GDHL following the Domestication, “GDH Delaware”), and (ii) certain related corporate reorganization transactions and amendments of applicable governing documents as described in this prospectus (collectively with the Domestication, the “Reorganization”). Following the Reorganization, GDH Delaware will merge with and into Pubco, an entity that was formed solely for the purpose of consummating the transactions described in this prospectus and that does not have any assets or operations, with Pubco continuing as the surviving entity (the “Reorganization Merger”). Pubco, which was incorporated as a Delaware corporation primarily for the purpose of consummating the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger and which does not currently have any assets or operations, will be the issuer of the shares of Class A common stock that are the subject of the registration statement on Form S-4 of which this prospectus forms a part.

Following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, Pubco will be a U.S. reporting issuer subject to Section 13 or 15(d) of the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the “Exchange Act”) and will succeed to GDHL’s existing reporting obligations in Canada. Pubco will be a holding company, and GDH LP will be the predecessor of Pubco for financial reporting purposes, in what is commonly referred to as an umbrella partnership corporation (“Up-C”) structure. Pubco’s principal assets will be its direct ownership of (1) LP Units (as defined and described in further detail in this prospectus) of GDH LP, which will entitle it to a corresponding percentage ownership of the economic interest in GDH LP, and (2) the general partnership interest of GDH LP, which will entitle Pubco to operate and control all of the business and affairs of GDH LP as its sole general partner, and, through GDH LP and its subsidiaries, to conduct all of Galaxy’s business. As a result, Pubco will consolidate GDH LP on its consolidated financial statements and record a noncontrolling interest related to the LP Units held by the Existing LPs (as defined and described in further detail in this prospectus) on its consolidated statement of financial position and consolidated statement of operations. See the section entitled “Proposed Organizational Structure” in this prospectus.

Accordingly, the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part includes the audited annual financial statements of GDH LP, as the accounting predecessor to Pubco, for all financial statement periods presented within the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part and amendments thereto prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States (“GAAP” or “U.S. GAAP”). Galaxy has not included any financial statements or other historical financial information of GDHL in this prospectus, as it was not identified as a predecessor to Pubco and its financial statements do not provide prospective Pubco stockholders or investors with any meaningful information about the Galaxy business that cannot be discerned from GDH LP’s financial statements. Specifically, the financial information of GDHL primarily reflects its equity method investment in GDH LP, which entity’s financial statements are already included within the registration statement as a consolidated subsidiary of Pubco after giving effect to the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger.

The registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part also includes the audited statement of financial position of Pubco as of December 31, 2023. As discussed in the section entitled “Proposed Organizational Structure” in this prospectus, Pubco is a newly-incorporated “business combination related shell company” as such term is defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act, with nominal assets and operations, which was formed primarily for the purpose of consummating the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger.

In this prospectus, unless otherwise stated or the context otherwise requires, the “Company,” “we,” “our,” “us,” “Galaxy” and similar references refer (1) prior to the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, to GDH LP and its consolidated subsidiaries, and (2) subsequent to the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, to Pubco and its consolidated subsidiaries (including GDH LP and its consolidated subsidiaries).

In this prospectus, all references to “$” and “USD” mean U.S. Dollars and all references to “C$” and “CAD” mean Canadian Dollars. Any conversion from U.S. Dollars to Canadian Dollars (or vice versa) has been determined by converting such currencies at the foreign exchange rate published by the Bank of Canada as of the date indicated.

In this prospectus, we present adjusted net income, which is a supplemental financial measure that was not prepared in accordance with GAAP. This non-GAAP financial measure is unaudited, presented as a supplemental disclosure and should not be considered in isolation of, as a substitute for or superior to our financial information prepared in accordance with GAAP, and should be read in conjunction with the financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus. For additional information on why we present our non-GAAP financial measure, the limitations associated with using our non-GAAP financial measure and a reconciliation of our non-GAAP financial measure to the most comparable applicable GAAP measure, see the section entitled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations—Galaxy—Non-GAAP Financial Measure” in this prospectus.

This prospectus includes industry and market data that Galaxy obtained from periodic industry publications, third-party studies and surveys, as well as from filings of public companies in Galaxy’s industry and internal company surveys. These sources include government and industry sources. Industry publications and surveys generally state that the information contained therein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable. Although Galaxy believes the industry and market data to be reliable as of the date of this prospectus, this information could prove to be inaccurate. Industry and market data could be inaccurate because of the method by which sources obtained their data and because information cannot always be verified with complete certainty due to the limits on the availability and reliability of raw data, the voluntary nature of the data gathering process and other limitations and uncertainties. This information involves a number of assumptions and limitations, and you are cautioned not to give undue weight to such estimates. Nonetheless, Galaxy is liable for the information included in this prospectus. None of the publications, reports or other published industry sources referred to in this prospectus were commissioned by Galaxy or prepared at Galaxy’s request, and as such, Galaxy has not sought or obtained the consent of any of these sources to include such market data in this prospectus.

Pubco and GDHL have filed with the SEC a registration statement on Form S-4 (the “Registration Statement”) under the Securities Act with respect to the transactions described herein. This prospectus, which constitutes part of the Registration Statement, does not contain all of the information set forth in the Registration Statement and the exhibits and schedules thereto. For further information about Galaxy and such transactions, Galaxy refers you to the Registration Statement and the exhibits and schedules filed as a part of the Registration Statement. Statements contained in this prospectus as to the contents of any contract or other document referred to are not necessarily complete. If a contract or document has been filed as an exhibit to the Registration Statement, Galaxy refers you to the copy of the contract or document that has been filed as an exhibit to the Registration Statement, and each statement about such contract or document is qualified in all respects by such reference.

As a result of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, Pubco will become a U.S. reporting issuer subject to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Exchange Act and will be required to file periodic reports and other information with the SEC. The SEC maintains an Internet website that contains reports, proxy statements and other information about issuers, like Pubco, that file such reports, proxy statements and other information electronically with the SEC. The address of that website is www.sec.gov. Following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, you can also obtain these documents, free of charge, from Galaxy’s website at www.galaxy.com. The information contained on, or that may be accessed through, Galaxy’s website is not incorporated by reference into, and is not a part of, this prospectus, and Pubco’s reports and any other information that Pubco has filed or may in the future file with the SEC are not incorporated by reference into, and do not constitute a part of, this prospectus or the Registration Statement.

GDHL also files annual, quarterly and material change reports, management circulars and other business and financial information with the applicable members of the Canadian Securities Administrators on the System for Electronic Document Analysis and Retrieval (“SEDAR”). Such information is available under GDHL’s profile on SEDAR at www.sedarplus.ca. The information contained on, or that may be accessed through, SEDAR is not incorporated by reference into, and is not a part of, this prospectus. Following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, Pubco will succeed to GDHL’s existing reporting obligations in Canada.

In addition, you may obtain copies of the information and any such documents filed as an exhibit to the Registration Statement for no charge by writing or telephoning Galaxy at the following address or telephone number:

I founded Galaxy in 2018 to bring institutions into a movement that I believe is a revolution. My own journey in crypto started in 2013. In the shadow of the global financial crisis, I saw bitcoin—a decentralized digital currency with a fixed supply—simply a compelling asset: a store of value and a hedge against the debasement of fiat currencies. I invested in it, and returned to my day job as a Macro trader.

I often described my work as a trader as looking for patterns that might foreshadow the future shape of the world. But I didn’t realize that the most important technological innovation in decades was sitting quietly at the bottom of my personal balance sheet. It was only in a Brooklyn warehouse in early 2016 that I began to see the outlines of the bigger picture. My college roommate had co-founded a project called Ethereum. I expected to find an office, an assistant, and a dog. Instead, I found thirty young people who believed with unshakable confidence that they were going to change the world.

The volatility of the cryptocurrency market makes for good headlines. But to focus only on price movements or speculation is to overlook the authentic revolutionary zeal in our industry; the people working every day to make the world’s digital, financial, and consumer infrastructure more transparent and egalitarian. This community is what made me passionate about crypto.

That young people are at the heart of this movement is unsurprising. Blockchain technology and crypto networks are a direct response to a breakdown of trust in centralized authority and to the failure of past generations as global stewards. It is in the context of rising inequality, stagnant real wage growth, and declining opportunities for upward mobility that younger generations have sought to forge their own path.

The genius of the Bitcoin whitepaper was to combine a digital signature which could not be counterfeited with a protocol—a ruleset—to achieve global agreement on digital information. Currency was only the first application. This innovation opened the door to true digital ownership and gave us a better way of organizing the economic world.

The world is now undergoing simultaneous and interconnected secular shifts: the first from analog to digital assets, and the second from an economy of participation to an economy of ownership within the new digital paradigm. Bitcoin created the possibility of a truly global, digitally connected financial system. Institutional adoption of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies shows that digital assets are here to stay. But the changes we are living through represent more than the emergence of a new asset class. People today use cryptocurrencies to make payments, lend, send remittances, earn interest, and borrow money—with greater speed, flexibility, and security.

More broadly, a peer-to-peer network that does not require an intermediary to ensure trust, combined with improvements in smart contracts, enables ownership economies in the digital world. This “internet of value,” sometimes called Web 3.0, is the next step towards the new digital paradigm. The World Wide Web enabled instant communication and democratized access to information, but large platforms today capture much of the data and much of the value. The next generation of the internet, built on globally distributed ledgers, will democratize access to digital ownership, allowing participants to hold a stake in the internet economy’s growth.

True digital ownership allows network participants to control their data and own their intellectual property. “Value,” like text or images, can be represented by digital information and can move frictionlessly across the internet. Unlike other forms of information, value needs the protection provided by blockchains to safeguard it against being altered or “double spent.” In Web 3.0, value will be transferred as easily as we exchange information today.

The explosive growth of digital art and collectibles we saw through 2022 was only the beginning. We believe that blockchain technology, crypto networks, and the internet of value will soon permeate many sectors of the

Times of growth are also times to be mindful that there is risk that comes with the reward. In every cycle of explosive growth, there are scammers who try to take advantage of people, investors looking to flip a quick profit, and companies who do things outside of regulations. It’s important to educate yourself and to do your diligence. So, while I’m bullish about this industry and our company, there are material risks involved, and you should read about them in this prospectus.

Galaxy serves as a bridge between traditional finance and the cryptoeconomy to help both incumbents and startups shape the economy of the future. Institutions and innovators alike need a trusted partner built to serve the needs of a global, digitally connected financial system. Galaxy is that partner. Through our diversified business lines and focus on digital assets, we service a growing number of institutions—Asset Managers, Banks, Corporations, Endowments, and Pensions, among others—all seeking exposure to the cryptoeconomy.

We also invest in innovators, providing founders with capital and advice, and opening our network to help theirs expand. The companies across our multiple venture portfolios denote our belief in the cryptoeconomy and provide us with unique insight into its cutting edge.

As the world of digital finance continues to evolve, Galaxy will evolve alongside it. Our leadership team brings to bear decades of experience across capital markets, asset management, technology, and venture investing. This position at the intersection of crypto and traditional finance allows us to offer products with familiar structures, built for digital assets, while also providing financial solutions unique to the cryptoeconomy, built on blockchains, that look and feel different from their predecessors.

Today, we are aggressively investing in our businesses and expanding globally. Our ambition is to make Galaxy the one-stop-shop for institutions seeking financial services in the cryptoeconomy, with a blue-chip leadership team that affords clients the assurance of veteran guidance as they navigate our burgeoning industry.

Past cryptocurrency price cycles, continued speculative trading in digital assets, and evolving regulatory guidelines suggest that our financials may be volatile in the short term. From our founding, however, Galaxy has taken a long view. Our industry is still in its infancy. We are building a business designed to succeed regardless of short-term market conditions.

We believe that thoughtful regulation drives responsible innovation. Galaxy is regulated today by more than 25 entities across state, federal, and international levels, and we are committed to working with the public sector to delineate rules of the road for digital assets. Operating and investing in this space will always carry risk, and such risk is enhanced in the absence of clearly defined regulation.

All our stakeholders believe in the promise of digital assets and the cryptoeconomy, and our goal is to bring as many participants as possible into this new frontier. Even as crypto prices came down alongside other risk assets in 2022, we continued to work diligently towards the long-term adoption of digital assets by institutions. We are working tirelessly every day to capture this momentum. Crypto is a 24/7 industry, and Galaxy is a 24/7 business. Someone on our team is missing holiday dinners, Friday nights with friends, and Sunday mornings with family to be available to our clients. I’d like to take a moment to thank them for their dedication. Our greatest assets go up and down our elevators every day.

The blockchain revolution is just beginning. I believe that crypto networks and digital assets will reshape the world in ways we can’t imagine. Our company’s very name seeks to communicate that inconceivable expansiveness. I am grateful for your trust in us to take you on this journey.

We have made statements under the captions “Prospectus Summary,” “Risk Factors,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations,” “Business” and in other sections of this prospectus that are forward-looking statements. In some cases, you can identify these statements by forward-looking words such as “may,” “might,” “will,” “should,” “expects,” “plans,” “anticipates,” “believes,” “estimates,” “predicts,” “potential” or “continue,” the negative of these terms and other comparable terminology. These forward-looking statements, which are subject to risks, uncertainties and assumptions about us, may include projections of our future financial performance, our anticipated growth strategies and anticipated trends in our business. These statements are only predictions based on our current expectations and projections about future events. There are important factors that could cause our actual results, level of activity, performance or achievements to differ materially from the results, level of activity, performance or achievements expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements, including those factors discussed under the caption entitled “Risk Factors.” You should specifically consider the numerous risks outlined under “Risk Factors.”

Although we believe the expectations reflected in the forward-looking statements are reasonable, we cannot guarantee future results, level of activity, performance or achievements. Moreover, neither we nor any other person assumes responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of any of these forward-looking statements. Some of the factors that could cause actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements include:

Given these risks and uncertainties, you are cautioned not to place undue reliance on such forward-looking statements. The forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus are not guarantees of future performance and our actual results of operations, financial condition or liquidity, and the development of the industry and markets in which we operate, may differ materially from the forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus. In addition, even if our results of operations, financial condition or liquidity, and events in the industry and markets in which we operate, are consistent with the forward-looking statements contained in this prospectus, they may not be predictive of results or developments in future periods.

Any forward-looking statement speaks only as of the date of such statement. Except as required by law, we do not undertake any obligation to update or revise, or to publicly announce any update or revision to, any of the forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise.

We and our subsidiaries have limited operating history on which an investor might evaluate our performance. We began operations in 2018, and publicly introduced new products and services, including buying and selling of select cryptocurrencies (our “trading business”), managing capital on behalf of third parties (our “asset management” services), our financial, investment and strategic financial services (our “investment banking” and our principal investments business, now incorporated into our “crypto ventures” business and referred to as balance sheet venture investments, as applicable), and our suite of products and services related to bitcoin mining (our “mining” services) in 2020 and, our self-custody technology business in 2023. As a result, we are therefore subject to many of the risks common to early-stage enterprises, including under-capitalization, cash shortages, limitations with respect to personnel, financial and other resources and lack of revenues, any of which could have a material adverse effect on us and may force us to reduce or curtail operations. Due to our limited operating history, our business model has not been fully proven and we have limited financial data that can be used to evaluate our current business and future prospects, which subjects us to a number of uncertainties, including our ability to plan for, model and manage future growth and risks. Our historical revenue growth should not be considered indicative of our future performance. There is no assurance that we will be successful in achieving a return on stockholders’ investment and the likelihood of success must be considered in light of the early stage of operations. Even if we accomplish these objectives, we may not generate the anticipated positive cash flows or profits. No assurance can be given that we will ever be successful in our operations and operate profitably.

Furthermore, our business lines are nascent, unproven and subject to material legal, regulatory, operational, reputational, tax and other risks in every jurisdiction and are not assured to be profitable. We may fail to be able to implement our investment or trading strategies, achieve our investment objectives, effectively operate our digital asset mining sites, develop our business lines or produce a return for our investors. We have chosen to pursue a number of different businesses in this evolving industry. It is possible that some of these businesses may be difficult to enter and/or it may become evident that a particular business is not a productive use of capital or time. This could lead us to modify our businesses and focus. In particular, we may become involved in investments and projects that are not directly related to the digital asset or blockchain industry. These projects are likely to relate to industries and clients that we believe will benefit in the future from blockchain technology and our experience and network in digital assets industry.

From time to time, we may also launch new lines of business, offer new products and services within existing lines of business or undertake other strategic projects. There are substantial risks and uncertainties associated with these efforts and we would invest significant capital and resources in such efforts. Regulatory requirements can affect whether initiatives are able to be brought to market in a manner that is timely and attractive to our customers. Initial timetables for the development and introduction of new lines of business, products or services and price and profitability targets may not be met.

Furthermore, our revenues and costs may fluctuate due to start-up costs associated with new businesses or products and services while revenues may take time to develop, which may adversely impact our results of

Our leading sources of revenue are dependent on digital assets and the broader cryptoeconomy. Our operating results have and will significantly fluctuate due to a variety of factors, including the highly volatile nature of cryptocurrency. Significant positive or negative changes in cryptocurrency asset prices will not necessarily result in similar benefit or impairment to our operating results and financial condition. For example, the cumulative market capitalization of cryptocurrencies decreased approximately 57% during the three months ended June 30, 2022, while the value of Unit holders’ capital decreased 23% during the same period. In addition, during the three months ended September 30, 2022, Unit holders’ capital decreased by 90%, while the cumulative market capitalization of cryptocurrencies increased by 7%. Our operating results will continue to fluctuate significantly as a result of a variety of factors, many of which are unpredictable and in certain instances are outside of our control, including:

As a result of these factors, it is difficult for us to forecast growth trends accurately and our business and future prospects are difficult to evaluate, particularly in the short term. In view of the rapidly evolving nature of our business and the cryptoeconomy, period-to-period comparisons of our operating results may not be meaningful, and you should not rely upon them as an indication of future performance. Quarterly and annual expenses reflected in our financial statements may be significantly different from historical or projected rates. Our operating results in one or more future quarters may fall below the expectations of securities analysts and investors. As a result, the market price of our Class A common stock may increase or decrease significantly.

Any declines in the volume of digital asset transactions, the price of digital assets, or market liquidity for digital assets generally may adversely affect our operating results. We have significant investments in digital assets. As of December 31, 2023, we held digital intangible assets of $972.4 million and digital financial assets of $74.4 million. In addition, Unit holders’ capital was $1.7 billion as of such date. Changes in the value of digital assets will generally have a significant impact on our results. Our operating results will be impacted by the revenues and profits we generate from the purchase, sale, and trading of digital assets. The price of digital assets and associated demand for buying, selling, and trading of digital assets have historically been subject to significant volatility. For instance, in 2017, the value of certain digital assets, including bitcoin, experienced steep increases in value, followed by a steep decline in 2018. More recently, after recovering and reaching record highs in December 2021, the value of the total crypto market cap declined by approximately 25% in the twenty-four months ended December 31, 2023. The collapse of several companies in the digital asset industry such as Celsius, Voyager and FTX in 2022 impacted digital assets prices at various points throughout the year and digital asset prices continue to be volatile. The price and trading volume of any digital asset is subject to significant uncertainty and volatility, and may significantly decline in the future, without recovery. Such uncertainty and volatility depend on a number of factors, including:

There is no assurance that any digital asset will maintain its value or that there will be meaningful levels of trading activities. For example, in 2022 we witnessed dampened demand for trading digital assets in the wake of industry turmoil, impacting our operating results. In the event that the price of digital assets or the demand for trading digital assets decline, our business, operating results, and financial condition would be adversely affected.

Bitcoin, along with other digital assets, receive a high degree of public scrutiny, both from traditional media sources and through social media and other forums. Unfavorable publicity regarding bitcoin has adversely affected the price of bitcoin, as has unfavorable publicity involving other digital assets or digital asset-focused firms. Bitcoin has in the past, and may in the future, be the target of social media criticism, including regarding the market value, utility and environmental effects of bitcoin. Such unfavorable media coverage could continue to materially impact decisions to buy, hold, or trade bitcoin and, as a result, impact the price of bitcoin.

In addition, social media posts and other statements and actions by prominent individuals, including Elon Musk and Michael Saylor, have resulted in outsized movements in the market price of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies. It is possible that future statements by Mr. Musk and other individuals concerning bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies will have disproportionate impacts on the market price of bitcoin and other digital assets.

Depending on the facts and circumstances, a digital asset may be considered a “security”, or an activity in which we engage may be deemed to involve a “security” transaction, under the federal securities laws. The test for determining whether a particular digital asset is a “security”, or whether a particular activity involves a “security” transaction, is complex and difficult to apply, and the outcome is difficult to predict. Public, though non-binding, statements by senior officials at the SEC have indicated that the SEC did not consider bitcoin or Ether to be securities and does not currently consider bitcoin to be a security. The SEC staff has authored informal, non-binding letters to the promoters of a handful of digital assets to the effect that the staff would not recommend enforcement action to the SEC on the basis that transactions in such digital assets, as described to the staff by their respective promoters, are securities transactions. On the other hand, the SEC has brought enforcement actions against the promoters of several other digital assets on the basis that the digital assets in question are securities. Moreover, in September 2021 testimony before the Senate Banking Committee, the chair of the SEC stated that “only a small number” of digital assets are not securities. Beyond the public enforcement actions involving specific digital assets, the SEC has not yet publicly identified which specific digital assets it considers to be securities, although it is possible that the SEC could do so in the future in the context of enforcement actions or in public statements outside the enforcement context. And although there is limited guidance on the subject, the SEC has also found certain economic arrangements involving digital assets to be securities transactions.

The SEC’s positions on the federal securities law status of particular digital assets are closely watched and can have dramatic effects, whether or not the SEC’s positions prevail in federal court. For example, in 2020 the SEC filed a complaint against the promoters of XRP alleging that they raised more than $1.3 billion through XRP sales that should have been registered under the federal securities laws, but were not. In the weeks following the filing of the SEC’s complaint, XRP’s market capitalization fell to less than $10 billion, which was less than half of its market capitalization in the days prior to the complaint. In July 2023, a U.S. district court ruled that certain sales of XRP were not securities transactions for purposes of the federal securities laws, while others were. Also, in July 2022, the SEC filed insider trading charges against a former employee of Coinbase Global, Inc. and two other individuals. In the complaint, the SEC alleged that nine digital assets were securities under the U.S. federal securities laws. The SEC also brought charges against Genesis Global Capital, LLC, a subsidiary of Genesis Global Holdco, LLC, and Gemini Trust Company, LLC in January 2023 for their alleged unregistered offer and sale of securities to retail investors. Genesis Global Holdco, LLC, together with its subsidiaries filed a voluntary petition for reorganization under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code in January 2023. Further, in June 2023, the SEC filed complaints against Coinbase and Binance alleging, among other things, that such firms were operating as unregistered securities exchanges in the United States, and identifying a number of digital assets that the SEC alleges to be unregistered securities. Both Coinbase and Binance have denied the allegations. In addition, in November 2023, the SEC filed a complaint against Kraken and brought similar charges against Kraken, alleging that it operated as an unregistered securities exchange, brokerage and clearing agency. The outcome of these lawsuits, and any judicial determination of whether secondary-market transactions in the identified assets are securities transactions, remain uncertain. The SEC’s action against XRP’s promoters and the district court’s decision in that matter, its actions against Genesis, Gemini, Coinbase, Binance and Kraken and its inclusion of securities designations in these and other complaints underscore the continuing uncertainty around which digital assets are securities or when an activity involves a securities transaction. As part of our Trading business, we have in the past and in some cases continue to provide clients and counterparties access to certain digital assets that have been alleged to be securities in these complaints. For more information about the digital assets that our Trading business provides access to, see “Information about Galaxy--Our Products and Services.” We carefully consider the implications of these allegations as well as other developments relating to the digital assets to which we may provide clients and counterparties access.

We are currently in the process of responding to inquiries from U.S. regulators which, in some cases, may implicate our compliance with U.S. securities laws. In particular, members of the staff of the SEC's Division of Enforcement have raised whether certain of the digital assets that we trade are securities and therefore such trading activities should be conducted through a registered entity. Discussions with the SEC staff are ongoing and we have not received notice stating that the staff has made a determination to recommend enforcement action to the SEC. These discussions may impact our business, results of operations and our financial condition. See “Information about Galaxy—Legal Proceedings” for more information.

Any enforcement action by the SEC or a state securities regulator, or a court decision or SEC announcement, asserting or finding that a particular digital asset is a security for purposes of the federal securities laws would be expected to have an immediate and material adverse impact on the trading value of that digital asset if it is then generally used or traded in the United States, and depending on the specific characteristics of the digital asset, could have adverse spillover effects on the trading values of other digital assets perceived to share similar characteristics that are also generally used or traded in the United States. This is because the business models behind most digital assets are incompatible with U.S. regulations applying to transactions in securities. If a digital asset is asserted or found to be a security, it is likely to become difficult or impossible for the digital asset to be traded, cleared or custodied in the United States through the same channels used by non-security digital assets. For example, all transactions in such digital asset would have to be registered with the SEC and potentially state securities regulators, or conducted in accordance with exemptions from registration, which could severely limit its liquidity and usefulness. Moreover, the network on which such digital asset is utilized may be subject to regulation as a securities intermediary, which could effectively render the network impracticable for its existing purposes. In addition to materially and adversely affecting the trading value of the digital asset, any such consequences are likely to significantly impact the digital asset’s liquidity and market participants’ ability to convert the digital asset into U.S. dollars.

As described under “—A determination that a digital asset is a ‘security’, or that an activity in which we engage involves a ‘security’ transaction for purposes of the federal securities laws could have adverse regulatory consequences for us, and could therefore adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock,” the determination that a digital asset is a security under the federal securities laws could also have adverse U.S. regulatory consequences for us. But even if there were no such adverse U.S. regulatory consequences, we may nevertheless decide to terminate our services relating to that digital asset and liquidate our holdings of that digital asset while we believe a liquid market still exists, which could result in us selling that digital asset at depressed prices.

For a discussion of the potential consequences of having engaged in a digital asset transaction in the United States or with U.S. clients and counterparties in which we did not, but in retrospect should have, treated the digital asset in question as a security, see “Information About Galaxy—Government Regulation—United States—Securities Regulation Generally.”

To the extent we hold any digital asset that is impacted by an assertion or finding of securities status, or we engage in any economic arrangement in respect of a digital asset that is deemed to be a securities transaction, our business, financial condition and results of operations would be adversely impacted, as they would to the extent we earn revenues from transacting or facilitating transactions in that digital asset. Depending on which digital asset or

In addition to the potential for adverse consequences to our business, financial condition and results of operations described under “—A determination that a digital asset is a ‘security’, or that an activity in which we engage involves a ‘security’ transaction for purposes of the federal securities laws could adversely affect the value of that digital asset and potentially digital assets generally, and could therefore adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock,” the classification of a digital asset as a security under the federal securities laws has wide-ranging implications for the regulatory obligations that flow from the offer, sale, trading, clearing and holding of such assets. In June 2023, the SEC brought enforcement actions against two digital asset trading platforms alleging that a number of digital assets are securities and that, as a result, each had failed to register with the SEC in a number of capacities as required under the federal securities laws. In the days following the complaint, one of the digital asset trading platform’s publicly traded stock price fell by 10%. Although we take these implications into account for those digital assets that we treat as securities for federal securities law purposes, for a digital asset that we previously treated as not being a security for federal securities law purposes, these implications could include the following, any of which could have adverse consequences to our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock:

We may be able to take steps in order to bring our operations into compliance with the federal securities laws following a determination that one or more digital assets in which we transact are securities, but there is no guarantee that we would be able to take such actions as may be necessary to ensure that our future activities comply with applicable law, which could force us to discontinue some or all of our business activities. In general, any steps we are able to take in order to ensure future compliance with applicable laws would not insulate us from liability for past violations.

While the above description of adverse regulatory consequences focuses on the federal securities laws, the various U.S. states and jurisdictions outside the United States also intensively regulate securities transactions, and so a U.S. state’s or other jurisdiction’s determination that a particular digital asset is a security could have similarly adverse consequences to our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock.

We have procedures designed to analyze whether each digital asset that we seek to transact in or develop could be deemed to be a “security” under the federal securities laws. See “Information About Galaxy—Government Regulation—United States—Securities Regulation Generally.” We have adapted our process for determining the federal securities law status of digital assets over time, as the specific steps in the process have evolved in light of the developing regulatory environment. Prior to 2018, our activities primarily involved Bitcoin and Ethereum and their various forks. Beginning in January 2018, we implemented a procedure whereby before transacting in a new digital asset, our trading desk would seek approval from the legal department; the legal department would generally discuss the digital asset with other Galaxy employees to determine whether the digital asset appeared to have a consumptive use, as opposed to a merely speculative investment use, and if so approve it for transactions. Beginning in January 2019, our legal department introduced a New Product Approval form in order to standardize the process that was initiated the previous year, and responsibility for approving and categorizing new digital assets was assigned to a risk committee later renamed the “Token Committee” composed of senior executives, including members of the legal department, and advised by the legal department. The Token Committee is currently comprised of our President, Chief Financial Officer, Chief Operating Officer, General Counsel, Head of Trading, Head of Technology, Head of Research, Head of Operations, Chief Compliance Officer, Deputy Chief Compliance Officer and Deputy General Counsel. In August 2020, with the benefit of several months’ experience using the Token Committee approval process, our legal department updated the New Product Approval form to more closely align with the analysis being conducted by the Token Committee with advice of the legal department. In August 2021, the Token Committee introduced an element to the approval process in addition to the New Product Approval form,

We conduct a re-evaluation of our prior determinations regarding the federal securities law status of a digital asset in which we may transact when we become aware of new findings of facts or other changed circumstances implicating such digital asset, and a member of the Token Committee considers there to be a reasonable likelihood that such development could impact our prior determination with respect to the federal securities law status of such digital asset. In that event, we would re-evaluate such digital asset under our then-current procedures, taking into consideration such new development, before continuing to transact in such digital asset in a manner that would implicate our compliance with federal securities laws. We do not always re-examine our prior determinations regarding the federal securities law status of the digital assets in which we may transact solely because there has been an update or enhancement to our policies and procedures. Because of this, there is a possibility that a digital asset we have approved for trading under our prior policies and procedures might not gain approval under our policies and procedures as updated or enhanced. If we were to determine, as a result of a re-examination of our prior determination or otherwise, that a digital asset in which we have previously transacted on a “No Restrictions” basis is a security, we would take all actions that we deem necessary in order to comply with law, including but not limited to ceasing to trade such digital asset in the United States or with U.S. clients or counterparties.

Because of complexities in applying the federal securities laws to digital assets and the fact that different companies doing business in the digital asset industry take varying approaches to digital asset analyses, we expect that competitors may reach different conclusions from us on the securities-law status of a particular digital asset or digital asset category. Although we anticipate that these differences will narrow over time as the SEC and federal courts address the securities-law status of larger numbers of individual digital assets, or as Congress enacts relevant legislation, until that occurs, where competitors conclude that they have the ability to transact in digital assets in

We believe that our process reflects a thoughtful analysis that is reasonably designed to facilitate consistent application of available legal guidance to digital assets to determine whether a particular digital asset is a security. However, we recognize that the application of securities laws to the specific facts and circumstances of digital asset transactions is complex and subject to change, and therefore legal and regulatory risk will be an inherent feature of our business model until greater legal and regulatory certainty becomes possible. Because our process may be considered “risk based” in the sense that it is not capable of entirely eliminating risks associated with a particular digital asset being found to be a security, and because of the fact that our determinations (and similar determinations by other industry participants) are not binding upon the SEC, any federal court or any state securities regulator, we acknowledge that a particular digital asset that we transact in may in the future be found by the SEC, a federal court or a state securities regulator to be a security notwithstanding our prior determination. We also acknowledge that the SEC, a federal court or a state securities regulator may determine that a digital asset is a security based on factors that are difficult to predict and/or are outside of our control, potentially including the actions of a third party promoter. In that case, our prior determination, even if reasonable under the circumstances, would not preclude legal or regulatory enforcement action, or lawsuits brought by our clients and counterparties, based on the presence of a security. See “Information about Galaxy—Legal Proceedings” for more information.

We are highly dependent on the services of our senior management team, including members of our executive team, and other key employees and personnel across product, engineering, risk management, compliance and legal, finance and marketing. Because we operate in a relatively new industry that requires highly skilled and technical personnel, our future success is highly dependent on the talents and contributions of our senior management and other key personnel. The loss of any such key personnel could disrupt our operations and have a material adverse effect on our business.

In particular, we are highly dependent on the services of Michael Novogratz, our founder, CEO and, through his direct and indirect ownership, the largest beneficial owner of Pubco’s Class A common stock (after giving effect to the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger) (our “Founder”), for conducting our businesses, implementing investment and trading strategies and establishing and maintaining relationships with key business counterparties. If the services of our Founder were to become unavailable for any reason including a voluntary decision by our Founder to no longer continue with the business, it would have a material adverse effect on our business and investment decisions, financial results and returns to our stockholders.

Our Founder, other members of senior management or other key personnel could engage in activities outside of Galaxy or could quit Galaxy in favor of other pursuits. Neither our Founder nor any other key personnel are contractually required to continue to provide services to us. While all of our key personnel have entered into employment agreements with us which contain covenants that they will not compete with us and applicable laws may prevent such personnel from engaging in certain directly competitive activities to the extent that they are members of the Board, such laws will not guarantee to stockholders that such personnel will devote their full time, attention or efforts to us. For example, if our Founder were to cease to provide services to us, he could engage in other pursuits, which may relate to digital assets or investing, while remaining our largest and generally controlling owner, an outcome that may be unfavorable to stockholders. Our Founder may also continue to manage significant non-digital assets outside of us, which may consume some of his time, attention and efforts.

Our Founder has been a vocal and visible proponent of digital assets, in some cases attracting controversy in connection with his views and statements as expressed on social media or otherwise. Further, due to our Founder’s public profile, his views, statements and conduct could be subject to scrutiny by both the public at large and governmental and regulatory bodies, which could adversely affect our business and our reputation. These

Our brand and reputation are key assets and a competitive advantage, and maintaining a strong brand and reputation will be an important factor in our success and our development of our business. Protecting and enhancing our brand depends largely on the success of our marketing efforts, ability to provide consistent, high-quality, and secure products, services, features, and support. Thus, maintaining, protecting, and enhancing our reputation is also important to our development plans and relationships with our partners and counterparties. Furthermore, we believe that the importance of our brand and reputation may increase as competition in both the financial services industry and the cryptoeconomy further intensifies. Our brand and reputation could be harmed if we fail to achieve these objectives or if our public image were to be tarnished by negative publicity, unexpected events, or actions by third parties. Unfavorable publicity regarding, for example, the quality of or changes to our products and services, litigation or regulatory activity, privacy practices, data security compromises or breaches, terms of service, employment matters, the use of our products, services, or supported digital assets for illicit or objectionable ends, the actions of our clients, customers, employees, or the actions of other companies that provide similar services to ours, has in the past, and could in the future, adversely affect our reputation and our business.

We receive a high degree of media coverage in the cryptoeconomy and around the world. Additionally, because we are a founder-led company, actions by, or unfavorable publicity about our Founder, may adversely impact our brand and reputation. Such negative publicity also could have an adverse effect on the size and engagement of our customers and could result in decreased revenue, which could have an adverse effect on our business, operating results, and financial condition. Further, we may in the future, be the target of social media campaigns criticizing actual or perceived actions or inactions that are disfavored by our customers, employees, or society at-large, which campaigns could materially impact our customers’ decisions to engage with our products and services.

More broadly, because the digital asset and blockchain technology sectors are relatively nascent, public opinion is underdeveloped and will continue to evolve over time. For example, recently, there has been increased focus on the environmental, social and governance considerations regarding the use of electricity and other resources for digital asset mining operations. Public debate regarding the regulation of all facets of the digital asset sector will continue to take shape as regulators and lawmakers make their positions known. Moreover, in 2022, each of Celsius Networks, Voyager Digital, Three Arrows Capital and FTX declared bankruptcy. In particular, in November 2022, FTX—which was at the time one of the world’s largest and most popular digital asset trading platforms—became insolvent, and it was revealed that the platform had been misusing customer assets, resulting in a loss of confidence in participants of the cryptoeconomy and negative publicity surrounding crypto more broadly. Unfavorable media coverage in relation to the cryptoeconomy, including the societal impact of digital assets and the infrastructure that supports them and/or the viability of any particular cryptocurrency, digital asset trading platform, or firm engaged in digital asset-related businesses, could have a cascading impact on digital assets as an investable asset class, or even the cryptoeconomy at large, and adversely impact our business, our operating results and the value of any investment in us.

If we fail to protect our brand image or reputation, we may experience material adverse effects to the size, demographics, engagement, and loyalty of our customers and counterparties, resulting in decreased revenue. In addition, if securities analysts or investors perceive any media coverage of us, or of the cryptoeconomy more broadly, to be negative, the price of our Class A common stock may be adversely affected. Any such negative publicity could have an adverse effect on the size, activity, and loyalty of our customers and counterparties, and result in a decrease in revenue, which could adversely affect our business, operating results, and financial condition. See “Risks related to Cryptocurrencies and Digital Assets—Due to unfamiliarity and some negative publicity

Our future success depends on the continuing efforts of our key employees and our ability to attract and retain highly skilled personnel and senior management. We currently depend on the continued services and performance of our key personnel, including our Founder. Our growth strategy is based, in part, on our ability to attract and retain highly qualified individuals. Competition presented by other firms may create difficulty for us in recruiting and retaining professionals of a caliber consistent with our business strategy. If we are unable to successfully identify hire, develop, motivate and retain qualified professionals, this failure could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us. If one or more of our executive officers or key employees were unable or unwilling to continue their employment with us, we might not be able to replace them easily, in a timely manner, or at all. The risk that competitors or other companies may poach our talent increases as we continue to build our brands and become more well-known. Our key personnel have been, and may continue to be, subject to poaching efforts by our competitors and other fintech, internet and high-growth companies, including well-capitalized players in the digital asset space. The loss of key personnel, including members of management as well as key engineering, product development, marketing, and sales personnel, could disrupt our operations and have a material adverse effect on our business. The success of our brand also depends on the commitment of our key personnel to our mission. To the extent that any of our key personnel act in a way that does not align with our mission, our reputation could be materially adversely affected.

Our future success will depend upon our continued ability to identify, hire, develop, motivate and retain highly skilled individuals across the globe, with the continued contributions of our senior management being especially critical to our success. Competition for well-qualified, highly skilled employees in our industry is intense and our continued ability to compete effectively depends, in part, upon our ability to attract and retain new employees. While we have established programs to attract new employees and provide incentives to retain existing employees, particularly our senior management, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to attract new employees or retain the services of our senior management or any other key employees in the future. Additionally, we believe that our culture and core values have been, and will continue to be, a key contributor to our success and our ability to foster the innovation, creativity and teamwork we believe we need to support our operations. If we fail to effectively manage our hiring needs and successfully integrate our new hires, or if we fail to effectively manage remote work arrangements , our efficiency and ability to meet our forecasts and our ability to maintain our culture, employee morale, productivity and retention could suffer, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially adversely affected.

The cryptoeconomy is highly innovative, rapidly evolving, and characterized by healthy competition, experimentation, changing customer needs, frequent introductions of new products and services, and subject to uncertain and evolving industry and regulatory requirements. We expect competition to further intensify in the future as existing and new competitors introduce new products or enhance existing products. We compete against a number of companies operating both within the United States and abroad, and both those that focus on traditional financial services and those that focus on crypto-based services. For our discrete business lines we face competition from the following sources:

We believe our primary source of competition to date has been from companies, in particular those located outside the United States, who are either subject to significantly less stringent regulatory and compliance requirements in their local jurisdictions or have interpreted the regulatory requirements to which they are subject in a manner that is different from our interpretation. Some of such companies’ business models rely on being unregulated or only regulated in a small number of lower compliance jurisdictions, whilst also offering their products in highly regulated jurisdictions, including the United States, without necessarily complying with the relevant regulatory requirements in such jurisdictions.

To date, due to limited but growing enforcement by U.S. and foreign regulators, many of these competitors have been able to operate from offshore while offering large numbers of products and services to consumers, including in the United States, Europe, and other highly regulated jurisdictions, without complying with the relevant licensing and other requirements in these jurisdictions, and seemingly without penalty. Due to our regulated status in several jurisdictions and our commitment to legal and regulatory compliance, we have not been able to offer many popular products and services, including products and services that our unregulated or less regulated competitors are able to offer to a group that includes many of our customers, which may adversely impact our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

In recent years, our commitment to compliance and the attendant customer-facing requirements, including customer due diligence requirements, may have had a competitive impact on us as these unregulated or less compliance-focused competitors have attracted more business. We also have expended significant managerial, operational, and compliance costs to meet the legal and regulatory requirements applicable to us in the United States and other jurisdictions in which we operate, and expect to continue to incur significant costs to comply with these requirements, which these unregulated or less regulated competitors have not had to incur.

Additionally, due to the broad nature of our products and services, we also compete with, and expect additional competition from, traditional financial services companies. We also face competition from companies that may target a wider range of customers, including retail customers, which could result in such competitors gaining broader recognition and market acceptance relative to our institutional customer approach.

Many innovative start-up companies and larger companies have made, and continue to make, significant investments in research and development, and we expect these companies to continue to develop similar or superior products and technologies that compete with our products. Further, more traditional financial and non-financial services businesses may choose to offer crypto-based services in the future as the industry gains adoption. Our current and potential competitors may establish cooperative relationships among themselves or with third parties that may further enhance their resources, or may otherwise have certain competitive advantages over us.

If we are unable to compete successfully, or if competing successfully requires us to take costly actions in response to the actions of our competitors, our business, operating results, and financial condition could be adversely affected.

Digital asset trading platforms and decentralized finance protocols are relatively new and, in some cases, unregulated. Furthermore, while some digital asset trading platforms provide information regarding their ownership structure, management teams, private key management, hot/cold storage policies, capitalization, corporate practices and regulatory compliance, many other digital asset trading platforms do not. A lack of transparency provided could result in us underestimating the risk of a potential loss in balances, which could include the loss of a material portion of the value of the digital assets we own or invest in on such digital asset trading platforms. Digital asset trading platforms do not appear to be subject to regulation in a similar manner as other regulated trading platforms, such as national securities exchanges or designated contract markets. As a result, the marketplace may lose confidence in the less transparent or unregulated digital asset trading platforms, including prominent digital asset trading platforms that handle a significant volume of trading in these assets.

Many digital asset trading platforms are unlicensed, unregulated, operate without extensive supervision by governmental authorities, and do not provide the public with significant information regarding their ownership structure, management team, corporate practices, cybersecurity, and regulatory compliance. In particular, those located outside the United States may be subject to significantly less stringent regulatory and compliance requirements in their local jurisdictions. As a result, trading activity on or reported by these digital asset trading platforms is generally significantly less regulated than trading in regulated U.S. securities and commodities markets, and may reflect behavior that would be prohibited in regulated U.S. trading venues. Additionally, some of these non-U.S. digital asset trading platforms offer customers high leverage and/or a small insurance fund, which could result in potential losses being socialized to customers and a reduction in the value of our assets on digital asset trading platform.

We do not insure the digital assets that we hold. While our third-party custodians have indicated to us that they maintain insurance coverage that is intended to cover losses of the digital assets they custody on behalf of their clients to some extent, there can be no assurance that the loss of any digital asset is fully insured against, and we may have limited rights of legal recourse in the event of loss. Consequently, a loss may be suffered with respect to our digital assets that is not covered by insurance and for which no person is liable for damages. For example, in 2019 there were reports claiming that 80-95% of bitcoin trading volume on digital asset trading platforms was falsified or non-economic in nature, with specific focus on unregulated digital asset trading platforms located outside of the United States. Such reports may indicate that the bitcoin exchange market is significantly smaller than expected and that the United States makes up a significantly larger percentage of such market than is commonly understood. Nonetheless, any actual or perceived false trading in digital asset trading platforms, and any other fraudulent or manipulative acts and practices, could adversely affect the value of digital assets and/or negatively affect the market perception of such assets. Further, a number of digital asset trading platforms, including certain digital asset trading platforms with which we engage, do not obtain or perform comprehensive Services Organization Controls (“SOC”) 1 and SOC 2 evaluations of their systems on a regular basis, if at all. SOC 1 evaluations of a digital asset trading platform assess whether transactions are properly secured and segregated, and that the information provided to traders and investors is complete, accurate and timely. SOC 2 evaluations assess the design and implementation of an digital asset trading platform’s security, availability, and confidentiality controls. Moreover, there are two types of such SOC evaluations: type 1 evaluates the processes at a particular point in time, while type 2 evaluations can test that the system controls across both the platform and its custody products, if applicable, have been operating effectively over a period of time. If digital asset trading platforms do not perform SOC evaluations, we may be unable to confirm that such platforms’ financial reporting is accurate or whether it has taken proper steps to secure its information technology infrastructure against internal and external threats, which could expose us to additional risks that may have been identified and remediated had such platforms obtained or performed SOC evaluation. Engaging with such digital asset trading platforms and decentralized finance protocols

Negative perception, a lack of stability in these digital asset trading platforms, fraud or misconduct, and the temporary or permanent closure of such trading platforms due to fraud, business failure, hackers or malware, or government-mandated regulation may reduce confidence in the digital asset marketplace in general and result in a reduction in the value of our assets and greater volatility in the price of digital assets, as well as increase scrutiny on our activities and increase the likelihood of unfavorable government regulation and the risks of litigation against us. These potential consequences could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us and, therefore, the market price of our Class A common stock.

Misconduct or error by our employees or our business partners could subject us to legal liability, financial losses, and regulatory sanctions and could seriously harm our reputation and negatively affect our business. Such misconduct could include engaging in improper or unauthorized transactions or activities, misappropriation of customer funds, insider trading and misappropriation of information, failing to supervise other employees or service providers, improperly using confidential information, as well as improper trading activity such as spoofing, layering, wash trading, manipulation and front-running.

Galaxy’s reputation is critical to maintaining and developing relationships with existing and prospective investors, as well as the numerous third parties with which the Company or a client does business. In recent years, there have been a number of highly publicized cases involving fraud, conflicts of interest or other misconduct by individuals in the financial services industry, and in particular the digital assets sector, and there is a risk that an employee of or contractor to the Company or any of its affiliates could engage in misconduct that adversely affects the investment strategies implemented by the Company, or that an employee or contractor of a service provider could engage in such misconduct. It is not always possible to deter such misconduct, and the precautions the Company (or any service provider) takes to detect and prevent such misconduct may not be effective in all cases. Misconduct by such individuals, or even unsubstantiated allegations of such misconduct, could result in both direct financial harm to the Company and a client, as well as harm to the reputations of the Company and the client, or, in certain circumstances, lead to increased skepticism of the digital asset markets generally, which would have a materially adverse effect on a client.

The inappropriate and/or unauthorized use of social media platforms, including weblogs (or blogs), social media websites and other forms of internet-based communications, which allow individuals access to a broad audience of consumers and other interested persons by our clients or employees could increase our costs, cause damage to our brand, lead to litigation or result in information leakage. In addition, negative or inaccurate posts or comments about us on any social networking platforms could damage our reputation, brand image and goodwill. Despite our efforts to clearly define our mission and strategy and accurately characterize our products and service offerings, our employees, contractors or affiliates may engage in activities either in their official capacity as members of the Galaxy ecosystem, or in their unofficial capacities, that are in conflict with or are incongruent with Galaxy’s values, positions or strategies. Any instance of such discontinuity could negatively impact our client and/or counterparty

Employee or service provider errors, including mistakes in executing, recording, or processing transactions for customers, could expose us to the risk of material losses even if the errors are detected. Although we have implemented processes and procedures and provide trainings to our employees and service providers to reduce the likelihood of misconduct and error, these efforts may not be successful. There may be confusion among employees, business partners and service providers, particularly in a fast growth company like ours, with respect to compliance obligations, particularly including confidentiality, data access, trading, and conflicts.

Moreover, we frequently engage in a wide variety of transactions and maintain relationships with a significant number of projects in the cryptoeconomy and blockchain technology sector, their developers, members of their ecosystem, and investors. These transactions and relationships could create potential conflicts of interests in management decisions that we make. For instance, certain of our officers, directors, and employees may be active investors in crypto projects themselves, and may make investment decisions in respect of projects that they have personally invested in.

It is not always possible to deter misconduct, and the precautions we take to prevent and detect this activity may not be effective in all cases. If we were found to have not met our regulatory oversight and compliance and other obligations, we could be subject to regulatory sanctions, financial penalties, and restrictions on our activities for failure to properly identify, monitor and respond to potentially problematic activity and seriously damage our reputation. Our employees, contractors, and agents could also commit errors that subject us to financial claims for negligence, as well as regulatory actions, or result in financial liability. Further, allegations by regulatory or criminal authorities of improper trading activities could affect our brand, reputation and credibility of our Company may be adversely affected.

We may be party to lawsuits and legal proceedings in the ordinary course of business. These matters are often expensive and disruptive to normal business operations. We have been, currently are, and may from time to time face allegations, lawsuits, regulatory inquiries, actions, requests, audits or investigations including with regards to contractual disputes with our business partners and other service providers, disputes with our clients and customers, disputes with our employees, agents or affiliates and data privacy, data security, or intellectual property infringement disputes. As an enterprise whose material business lines include financial services, we or our subsidiaries and affiliates, depend to a significant extent on our relationships with our clients and counterparties and our reputation for integrity and high-caliber professional services. As a result, if a client is not satisfied with our services, a counterparty has a dispute or if there are allegations of improper conduct by private litigants or regulators, whether the ultimate outcome is favorable or unfavorable to us, or if there is negative publicity and press speculation about us, whether or not valid, our reputation may be harmed and may be more damaging to our businesses than to businesses in other non-financial industries.

We or our subsidiaries and affiliates have been and could be the subject of any number of inquiries, investigations, lawsuits and proceedings by counterparties, clients, other third parties and regulatory and other governmental agencies in the United States and abroad, which could lead to increased expenses and harm to our reputation, business, financial condition and the market price of our Class A common stock. Responding to inquiries, investigations, lawsuits and proceedings, regardless of the ultimate outcome of the matter, is time-consuming and expensive and can divert the attention of senior management. Adverse outcomes with respect to allegations, lawsuits, regulatory inquiries, audits, or investigations may result in significant settlement costs or judgments, penalties and fines, or require us to modify our services or require us to stop serving certain customers or geographies, any of which could negatively impact our business. The outcome of such proceedings, and the related expenses, may be difficult to predict or estimate until late in the proceedings, which may last a number of years and be costly for us to maintain.

The scope, determination, and impact of claims, lawsuits, government and regulatory investigations, enforcement actions, disputes, and proceedings to which we are subject cannot be predicted with certainty, and may result in:

Certain of our subsidiaries are subject to periodic examination by regulatory authorities. If compliance failures or other violations are found during an examination, a regulatory agency could initiate actions and impose sanctions for violations, including, for example, regulatory agreements, cease and desist orders, civil monetary penalties or termination of a license and could lead to litigation by investors or clients, any of which could adversely impact us.

If we and/or any governmental agency believe that we have accepted capital contributions by, or are otherwise holding assets of, any person or entity that is acting directly or indirectly, in violation of U.S., international or other anti-money laundering laws, rules, regulations, treaties or other restrictions, or on behalf of any suspected terrorist or terrorist organization, suspected drug trafficker or senior foreign political figure(s) suspected in engaging in foreign corruption, we and/or such governmental agency may “freeze the assets” of such person or entity. We may also be required to report and remit or transfer those assets to a governmental agency.

Following the consummation of the Reorganization, we will also be subject to the risk of claims under applicable U.S. securities laws. Volatility in our stock price increases the risk of such claims. Actions against us could be brought by sizable classes of customers who may claim large monetary damages, even if the alleged per-customer harm is small or non-existent. Regardless of the outcome, any such matters can have an adverse impact, which may be material, on our business, operating results, or financial condition because of legal costs, diversion of management resources, reputational damage, and other factors.

Our industry, and the cryptoeconomy generally, has been characterized by many rapid, significant, and disruptive products and services in recent years. These include decentralized applications, which allow yield farming, staking, token wrapping, governance tokens, innovative programs to attract customers such as transaction fee mining programs, initiatives to attract traders such as trading competitions, airdrops and giveaways, staking

We primarily trade, invest and hold digital assets and investments in the blockchain space and conduct related businesses. We may accumulate significant positions in, or otherwise have significant exposure to, a single digital asset or asset type. If we choose to invest in concentrated positions, we could increase the volatility of investment results over time and exacerbate the risk that a loss in any position would have a material and adverse effect on our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

We are exposed to significant market risk based on our positions in digital assets, securities, commodities and other assets. The prices or values of digital and non-digital assets in which we may invest or trade have been, and likely will continue to be, highly volatile. We are also subject to the risk of loss of any cash or digital assets that we hold on digital asset trading platforms. For example, on November 8, 2022, FTX, a digital asset trading platform on which we held cash and digital assets, suspended customer withdrawals. FTX subsequently filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on November 11, 2022. As of December 31, 2022, the Company had a net loss of approximately $68 million related to our previously disclosed FTX exposure. The Company subsequently repurchased its FTX bankruptcy claims for $18.5 million and recorded unrealized gains of $26.4 million during the year ended December 31, 2023. Following year-end, the Company divested these claims. Events such as these within the digital asset industry are continuing to develop and it is not possible to predict at this time all of the risks that they may pose to Galaxy, our service providers or to the digital asset industry as a whole. Sustained market declines and periods of significant market volatility may limit our ability to produce positive investment and trading results, and there can be no assurance that our strategies will be successful in the markets and assets in which we invest or trade.

Our operations could be interrupted if our third-party service providers experience operational or other systems difficulties, terminate their services or fail to comply with regulations. We outsource some of our operational activities and accordingly depend on relationships with many third-party service providers. Specifically, we rely on third parties for certain services, including, but not limited to, legal, accounting, custodying and other financial operations, trade related activity, IT infrastructure and systems, trade reconciliation, and margin and collateral movement. Our business depends on the successful and uninterrupted functioning of our information technology and telecommunications systems and third-party service providers. The failure of these systems, a cybersecurity breach involving any of our third-party service providers or the termination or change in terms of a third-party software license or service agreement on which any of these systems is based could interrupt our operations. Because our information technology and telecommunications systems interface with and depend on third-party systems, we could

We host certain of our mining equipment at third-party datacenters. The providers oversee maintenance, up-time and other important elements of mining productivity. There is a service agreement that guarantees hash rate performance and system up-time and contractual consequences if the hosts do not meet these requirements. To the extent that a host does not meet these requirements for extended periods of time, the revenue from this business could be less than anticipated. Additionally, to the extent power costs increase, it could affect the future profitability of the business.

We may incur major losses in the event of disrupted markets and other extraordinary events in which market behavior diverges significantly from historically recognized patterns. The risk of loss in such events may be compounded by the fact that in disrupted markets, many positions become illiquid, making it difficult or impossible to close out positions against which markets are moving. Market disruptions caused by unexpected political, military and terrorist events may from time to time cause dramatic losses for us. Any such disruptions and events may have a material and adverse effect on our investment and trading strategies and on any investment in us.

Any issue or adverse circumstance surrounding our operational risks may have a material and adverse effect on our performance and results. Operational risk is the risk of an adverse outcome resulting from inadequate or failed internal processes, people, systems or from external events. Our exposure to operational risk arises from routine processing errors, as well as extraordinary incidents, such as major systems failures or legal and regulatory matters. As we operate trading, lending, investment and other businesses that are reliant on both technology and human expertise and execution, we are exposed to material operational risk arising from a number of factors, including, but not limited to, human error, processing and communication errors, errors of our service providers, counterparties or other third parties, failed or inadequate processes and technology or system failures.

Digital asset transfers are typically not reversible without the consent and active participation of the recipient of the transaction. Once a transaction has been verified and recorded in a block that is added to the blockchain, an incorrect transfer or theft of digital assets generally will not be reversible and we may not be capable of seeking compensation for any such transfer or theft. Although we have processes and procedures in place to limit any such transfers, it is possible that, through computer or human error, or through theft or criminal action, our digital assets could be subject to these operations errors and transferred from our accounts in incorrect amounts or to unauthorized third parties, or to uncontrolled accounts. To the extent that our business lines expand to include trust companies, custody services will expose us to greater risk of loss from irreversible operational errors, such as collateral transferred from a custody account in incorrect amounts or to unauthorized third parties, or to uncontrolled accounts. Operational errors or significant operational delays could materially negatively impact our ability to conduct our business or service our clients, which could adversely affect results of operations due to potentially higher expenses and lower revenues, create liability for us or our clients or negatively impact our reputation. Recurring operational issues may raise concerns among regulators regarding our governance and control environment.

We seek to mitigate risk and have established policies for the types of risk to which we are subject, including operational risk, credit risk, market risk, counterparty risk, exchange risk and liquidity risk. However, there are inherent limitations to our current and future risk management strategies, including risks that we have not appropriately anticipated or identified. Accurate and timely enterprise-wide risk information is necessary to enhance

We currently have subsidiaries and operations in jurisdictions such as the Cayman Islands, the U. K., Hong Kong, Canada, Israel, the Bahamas and Japan as well as the United States. We plan to enter into or increase our presence in additional markets around the world, and any inability or failure to adequately exploit opportunities for international expansion, may harm our business and our adversely affect our revenue. We have a limited operating history outside North America, and our ability to manage our business and conduct our operations internationally requires considerable management attention and resources and is subject to particular challenges of supporting a rapidly growing business in an environment of diverse cultures, languages, customs, tax laws, legal systems, alternate dispute systems and regulatory systems. As we continue to expand our business and customer base outside the United States, we will be increasingly susceptible to risks associated with international operations. These risks and challenges include:

We have limited experience with international regulatory environments and market practices, and we may not be able to penetrate or successfully operate in the markets we choose to enter. In addition, we may incur significant expenses as a result of our international expansion, and we may not be successful. We may launch products that lack local product-market fit, face local competition from pre-existing companies offering similar products and/or face limited brand recognition in certain parts of the world, any of which could lead to non-acceptance or delayed acceptance of our products and services by customers in new markets. Product adoption and growth rates may vary significantly across different markets. We are subject to income taxes and other taxes in the United States and other countries in which we transact or conduct business, and such laws and tax rates vary by jurisdiction. We are subject to review and audit by U.S. federal, state, local and foreign tax authorities. Such tax authorities may disagree with tax positions we take, and if any such tax authority were to successfully challenge any such position, our financial condition or results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. Our failure to successfully manage these risks, or any failure to quickly exploit any opportunity for international expansion could harm our international operations in the markets we choose to enter and have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Revenue generated and expenses incurred from our international operations are often denominated in the currencies of the local countries. Accordingly, changes in the value of foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar can affect our revenue and operating results reflected in our U.S. dollar-denominated financial statements. Our financial results are also subject to changes in exchange rates that impact the settlement of transactions in non-local currencies. As a result, it could be more difficult to detect underlying trends in our business and operating results. To the extent that fluctuations in currency exchange rates cause our operating results to differ from expectations of investors, the market price of our Class A common stock could be adversely impacted. Even if we use derivative instruments to hedge exposure to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates, the use of such hedging activities may not offset any or more than a portion of the adverse financial effects of unfavorable movements in foreign exchange rates over the limited time the hedges are in place, and may introduce additional risks if we are unable to structure effective hedges with such instruments.

We face risks related to health epidemics and other outbreaks of communicable diseases, which could significantly disrupt our operations and may materially and adversely affect our business and financial conditions. For example, in December 2019, a novel strain of the coronavirus COVID-19 emerged as a global pandemic. As a result, during the first quarter of 2020, global financial markets experienced a period of sharp decline and volatility due in large part to the real and perceived economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The public health impact of the coronavirus, as well as the steps taken by governments and businesses around the world to combat its spread, impacted the global economy in a variety of ways, including causing many businesses to close and significant supply chain disruptions.

During the global financial crisis of 2007 to 2008, various sectors of the global financial markets experienced an extended period of adverse conditions featuring market uncertainty, reduced liquidity, greater volatility, general widening of credit spreads and a lack of price transparency. In addition, governments from time to time during times of crisis intervene, directly and by regulation in ways that are unpredictable. Such intervention is often intended to directly influence prices and may, together with other factors, cause all of such markets to move rapidly in the same direction. To the extent that similar marketplace events were to occur in the future, either as a result of a pandemic or otherwise, these events may have an adverse impact on our investments or our business operations.

We intend to continue to execute on our strategic plans and operational initiatives; however, future pandemics or market disruptions may result in delays or modifications to these plans and initiatives. Business activities could also be materially adversely impacted as the fundraising for asset management products and advisory transactions may be delayed during such situations and the delivery of mining equipment may be disrupted due to supply chain interruptions. In particular, a pandemic could materially and adversely impact our business including without limitation, employee health, workforce productivity, increased expenses and other factors that will depend on future developments beyond our control, which may have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows. Such adverse effect could be rapid and unexpected.

The ultimate extent of the impact of any epidemic, pandemic, or other health crisis on our business will depend on multiple factors that are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted, including its severity, location and duration, and actions taken to contain or prevent further its spread. Additionally, pandemics could increase the magnitude of many of the other risks described in this prospectus, and may have other material adverse effects on our operations that we are not currently able to predict. If our business and the markets in which we operate experience a prolonged occurrence of adverse public health conditions, such as COVID-19, it could materially adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

Natural disasters or other catastrophic events may also cause damage or disruption to our operations, international commerce, and the global economy, and could have an adverse effect on our business, operating results, and financial condition. Our business operations are subject to interruption by natural disasters, fire, power shortages, and other events beyond our control. Further, acts of terrorism, labor activism or unrest, and other geo-political unrest could cause disruptions in our business or the businesses of our partners or the economy as a whole. In the event of a natural disaster, including a major earthquake, blizzard, or hurricane, or a catastrophic event such as a fire, power loss, or telecommunications failure, we may be unable to continue our operations and may endure system interruptions, reputational harm, delays in development of our platform, lengthy interruptions in service, breaches of data security, and loss of critical data, all of which could have an adverse effect on our future operating results. We do not maintain insurance sufficient to compensate us for the potentially significant losses that could result from disruptions to our services. Additionally, all the aforementioned risks may be further increased if we do not implement a disaster recovery plan or our partners’ disaster recovery plans prove to be inadequate. To the extent natural disasters or other catastrophic events concurrently impact data centers or mining equipment that we rely on, our operations may be delayed and we may suffer losses, both financial and otherwise.

The continued conflict between Ukraine and Russia and the evolving conflict in the Middle East is likely to continue to create, impacts on global economic markets that are unpredictable. Furthermore, certain Galaxy operations are headquartered in Israel, with primary offices located in Tel Aviv. More than 40 Galaxy employees are physically located in Israel, a number of whom have military reserve service obligations. There has been no material impact from the ongoing conflict in the Middle East on the Company’s operations in the region. Galaxy management is monitoring the situation including implementing business continuity plans to mitigate future potential risk.

Adverse developments that affect financial institutions, such as events involving liquidity that are rumored or actual, have in the past and may in the future lead to bank failures and market-wide liquidity problems. For example, on March 10, 2023, Silicon Valley Bank (“SVB”) was closed by the California Department of Financial Protection and Innovation, which appointed the FDIC as receiver. Similarly, on March 12, 2023, the New York Department of Financial Services took possession of Signature Bank and appointed the FDIC as receiver of the bank. The U.S. Department of the Treasury, the Federal Reserve and the FDIC released a statement that indicated the FDIC would complete its resolution of SVB and Signature in a manner that fully protects all depositors. The U.S. Department of Treasury, FDIC and Federal Reserve Board also announced a program to provide up to $25 billion of loans to financial institutions secured by certain of such government securities held by financial institutions to mitigate the risk of potential losses on the sale of such instruments, widespread demands for customer withdrawals or other liquidity needs of financial institutions. We have in the past deposited funds with Signature Bank and Silvergate Bank. We have diverse U.S. banking relationships with most of our deposits at large, systemically important financial institutions. To the extent that we have deposited funds with banking institutions that fail and are not otherwise protected, we would lose the amount of our deposits over the then current FDIC insurance limit. The loss of our deposits could reduce the amount of cash we have available to operate our business and have an adverse impact on our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets, the value of any investment in us, financial condition and results of operations.

There are certain inherent and potential conflicts of interest in managing different business lines and the presence of any such conflict of interest could materially adversely affect our business, reputation, results of operations and financial condition. We seek to build a full service, institutional-quality financial services business through our operating businesses: global markets, asset management and digital infrastructure solutions. Subject to applicable regulatory approvals, we may also launch additional business lines from time to time. Due to the broad scope of our businesses, potential conflicts of interest include situations where our services to a particular client or our own investments or other interests conflict, or are perceived to conflict, with the interests of another client, as well as situations where one or more of our businesses have access to material non-public information that may not be shared with our other businesses and situations where we may be an investor or creditor of an entity with which we also have an advisory or other relationship. For example, our subsidiaries may provide corporate advisory services to companies that are also investee companies of GAM or within our venture portfolio. In such circumstances, we may not be able to conduct transactions relating to investments in portfolio companies, for example, due to the inability of GAM to use to material non-public information in buying or selling securities to us. Furthermore, the allocation of investment opportunities among us, our funds and our clients could also present conflicts of interest. Providing custody services while managing other funds and accounts can present certain conflicts of interest as those funds and accounts might have similar or different investment objectives or strategies as trust accounts, or otherwise hold, purchase or sell investments that are eligible to be held, purchased or sold by the trust accounts, or may take positions that are opposite in direction from those taken by the trust accounts. In managing these different conflicts, fiduciary duty obligations may require us to resolve conflicts in favor of clients over our Company or other third parties. For example, GAM may be engaged to provide advice to a client that is considering entering into a transaction with us, and may advise the client not to pursue the transaction with us, or

Our asset management business, which is conducted through one or more subsidiaries, is primarily comprised of fees based on a percentage of the value of AUM and, in some cases, performance fees which are normally expressed as a percentage of returns to the client. Numerous factors, including price movements in the assets in the markets in which we manage assets, could cause:

The occurrence of any of these events may cause our AUM, revenue and earnings, if any, to decline and may negatively impact the success of our asset management business, results of operations and financial condition.

Asset management is a highly regulated business subject to numerous legal and regulatory requirements. These regulations are intended to protect customers whose assets are under management and, as such, may limit our ability to develop, expand or carry out our asset management business in the intended manner. We are guided in significant part by regulatory regimes that are not clear or are not yet developed. To the extent that there is any ambiguity as to whether an asset under management is a security, the applicability of many regulations to our asset management business will not be clear. Furthermore, we must address conflicts of interest, as well as the perception of conflicts of interest, between ourselves (including our other business lines) and our clients and funds. In particular, we are required to act in the best interest of our clients and funds, which may include allocating opportunities to our clients and funds rather than to our own principal business lines. In addition, regulators have substantial discretion in determining what is in the best interest of a client of a fund and have increased their scrutiny of potential conflicts as well as the disclosure of such conflicts to an asset manager’s clients. Appropriately dealing with conflicts of interest is complex and if we fail, or appear to fail, to deal appropriately with any of these conflicts of interest, we may face reputational damage, litigation, regulatory proceedings, or penalties, fines or sanctions, any of which may have a material and negative impact on our asset management business. In addition, to the extent that we are required to obtain client or investor consent in connection with any potential conflict, any failure or delay in obtaining such consent may have a material and negative impact on our ability to take advantage of certain business opportunities.

The asset management industry is highly competitive and has relatively low barriers to entry. We currently expect that, as digital assets become more mainstream, additional competitors, potentially in large numbers, may begin providing asset management services with respect to digital assets. We compete based on a number of factors

Our investments may be very risky and highly speculative and our venture investments business within asset management is subject to substantial risk, including risks related to third-party investment managers, operational risk, conflicts of interests, asset performance and regulatory compliance, that, if realized, could result in significant damage to our business and operating results.

Moreover, our due diligence processes may fail to uncover all of the problems, liabilities or other challenges, including fraud, material deficiencies, regulatory or compliance issues in connection with our prospective portfolio companies or our third-party investment managers. This could result in an increased risk of unanticipated or unknown issues or liabilities including with respect to compliance and regulatory matters, and our mitigation strategies may not be effective. Further, our valuations and projections in connection with our prospective investments may be inaccurate, which could result in a loss of all or substantially all of our investments and could adversely impact our financial condition and our business.

We generally do not take controlling equity positions in our portfolio companies. To the extent that we do not hold a controlling equity interest in a portfolio company, we are subject to the risk that a portfolio company may make business decisions with which we disagree, and the stockholders and management of a portfolio company may take risks or otherwise act in ways that are adverse to our interests. Due to the lack of liquidity for the debt and equity investments that we typically hold in our portfolio companies, we may not be able to dispose of our investments in the event we disagree with the actions of a portfolio company, and may therefore suffer a decrease in the value of our investments. Further, our portfolio companies may be highly leveraged.

We mine bitcoin directly and manage a full suite of bitcoin-mining focused products and services. In December 2022, we acquired the Helios bitcoin mining facility and its operations, expanding our capacity. In furtherance of these objectives, Mining has procured bitcoin mining machines to be utilized for proprietary operations, miner finance and resale. We and our subsidiaries such as Mining also lease mining equipment, including ASICs hardware from third-party producers, to customers as part of our mining business. The success of this business depends significantly on the creditworthiness and financial strength of the lessees of such equipment. While we perform due diligence on prospective lessees, defaults under leases are possible. In the event of a default by a lessee under an equipment lease, whether as a result of a failure by the lessee to comply with the lease terms, equipment failure or otherwise, we might not receive payments which we otherwise expect or to which we are entitled, or may incur liability to the lessee, and thereby could experience a material adverse effect on our expected return under a lease. This risk is heightened given that some portion of the payments in respect of such leases may be cryptocurrency or other digital assets, and thus subject to the volatility, liquidity and other risks detailed elsewhere in these risk factors. Our ability to have access to collateral securing lease payments or otherwise could be limited by bankruptcy and other insolvency laws. Under certain circumstances, there is a risk that a court may deem an equipment lease to be a secured transaction. There is no assurance that the liquidation of the collateral securing a lease would satisfy the lessor’s obligations under the lease in the event non-payment or other non-compliance, or that any such collateral could be readily liquidated. As a result, we might not receive full payment on a lease to which we are entitled and thereby could experience a decline in the value of, or a loss with respect to, such lease. Mining equipment leased by

Due to the illiquid market for mining equipment, part of our competitive advantage has to do with our access to the supply of mining equipment from vendors all over the world. As such, we are susceptible to any disruptions in this supply chain, including but not limited to non-delivery of machines and risks associated with the jurisdiction that the vendor is located.

Additionally, as the technology evolves, we may seek to acquire and lease newer models of miners to remain competitive in the market. Over time, we replace those miners which are no longer functional with new miners purchased from third-party manufacturers, many of whom are based in China. As the mining equipment that we own and lease eventually becomes obsolete or degrades due to ordinary wear and tear from usage, or becomes lost or damaged due to factors outside of our control, miners will need to be repaired or replaced along with other equipment from time to time in order for our for us to stay competitive. This upgrading process requires substantial capital investment, and we may face challenges in doing so on a timely and cost-effective basis based on availability of new miners. If we are unable to obtain adequate numbers of new and replacement miners at scale, our mining business be unable to remain competitive.

Governments have limited or may limit the shipment of products in and out of their jurisdictions, which could negatively impact our ability to receive mining equipment from our suppliers. Our third-party manufacturers, suppliers, sub-contractors and customers have been and will continue to be disrupted by worker absenteeism, quarantines, restrictions on employees’ ability to work, office and factory closures, disruptions to ports and other shipping infrastructure, border closures, or other travel or health-related restrictions. Depending on the magnitude of such effects on our supply chain, shipments of parts for our existing miners, as well as any new miners we purchase, may be delayed. As our miners require repair or become obsolete and require replacement, our ability to obtain adequate replacements or repair parts from their manufacturer may therefore be hampered. Supply chain disruptions could therefore negatively impact our operations.

Further, digital asset mining operations can consume significant amounts of electricity, and recently, there has been increased focus on, and public debate surrounding, the negative environmental, social and governance considerations associated with such operations. For a more detailed discussion of these risks, see “— Regulatory changes or actions in foreign jurisdictions may affect our business or restrict the use of one or more digital assets, mining activity or the operation of their networks or the digital asset trading platform market in a manner that adversely affects our business” and “— If regulators or public utilities take actions that restrict or otherwise impact mining activities, there may be a significant decline in such activities, which could adversely affect digital asset networks, our business and the market price of our Class A common stock,” in each case under the caption “— Risks Related to Regulation, Information Systems and Privacy Matters.”

Our digital asset mining operations can consume significant amounts of electricity and are dependent on our ability to maintain reliable and economical sources of power. We have undertaken certain processes, such as hedging, in order to reduce the risks of electricity price fluctuations, however fluctuations in the prices and availability of sufficient power could affect our ability to profitably engage in our digital asset mining operations.

The digital asset mining industry has seen rapid growth and innovation, and Mining may be unable to compete effectively. Mining’s expenses may be greater than we anticipate, and our investments to make Mining more efficient or to gain digital asset mining market share may not outpace monetization efforts. Bitcoin miners and other necessary hardware are also subject to malfunction, technological obsolescence, the global supply chain and difficulty, cost in obtaining new hardware and global energy prices. Any major malfunction out of the typical range of downtime for normal maintenance and repair could cause a significant disruption in our ability to continue mining, which could result in lower yields and harm our digital asset mining market share. New miners can be costly and may be in short supply. There can be no assurances that the most efficient mining hardware will be readily

Mining’s business strategy currently focuses on mining bitcoin (as opposed to other digital assets), and our hardware is limited to mining using current “proof-of-work” protocols. There could be developments in proof-of-work protocols, or other competing validation methods or processes, that negatively impact our current business strategy or render such business strategy obsolete. Proof-of-stake is an alternative method of validating digital asset transactions. Proof-of-stake methodology does not rely on resource intensive calculations to validate transactions and create new blocks in a blockchain; instead, the validator of the next block is determined, sometimes randomly, based on a methodology in the blockchain software. Rewards, and sometimes penalties, are issued based on the amount of digital assets a user has “staked” in order to become a validator. Should Bitcoin shift from a proof-of-work validation method to a proof-of-stake or other method, the transaction verification process (i.e., “mining” or “validating”) may render our mining business less competitive or less profitable. In addition, in the general course of our business outside of Mining, we participate in networks with proof-of-stake consensus algorithms, and we may earn rewards in the form of the native token of the network. Depending on the protocol, we also may permit third parties to “delegate” their digital assets to our validator. The third party earns rewards net of a commission earned by Galaxy. The value of any staked digital assets is subject to market volatility, and any such rewards we may earn as a validator could be offset by a loss in value of the staked digital assets. In addition, to the extent we participate in a proof-of-stake network but fail to remain current in any updates or upgrades to the network, we may become temporarily unable to earn rewards as a validator with respect to any staked digital assets on such network, or could have staked digital assets taken from us (“slashed”), to the extent we are deemed to be deviating from acting in the best interest of the network.

In addition, the aggregate computing power of the global Bitcoin network has generally grown over time and we expect it to continue to grow in the future. The barriers to entry for new bitcoin miners are relatively low, which can give rise to additional capacity from competing bitcoin miners. As the hash rate in the Bitcoin network increases, the amount of bitcoin earned per unit of hash rate decreases. The Bitcoin protocol responds to increasing total hash rate by increasing the “difficulty” of bitcoin mining. If this “difficulty” increases at a significantly higher rate, we would need to increase our hash rate at the same rate in order to maintain market share and generate equivalent block rewards. Therefore, in order to maintain or increase our market share, we may be required to make significant capital expenditures.

Any decrease in Mining’s effective market share would result in a reduction in our share of block rewards and transaction fees, which could adversely affect our financial performance and financial position.

We are not obligated to, and often times may not, hedge our exposures. However, from time to time, we may use a variety of financial instruments and derivatives, such as options, swaps, and forward contracts, for risk management purposes, including to: protect against possible changes in the market value of our investment or trading assets resulting from fluctuations in cryptocurrency markets or securities markets and changes in interest rates; protect our unrealized gains in the value of our investments or trading assets; facilitate the sale of any such assets; enhance or preserve returns, spreads or gains on any trade or investment; hedge the interest-rate or currency-exchange risk on any of our liabilities or assets; protect against any increase in the price of any assets that we anticipate purchasing at a later date; or to any other end that we deem appropriate. The success of any hedging activities by us will depend, in part, on our ability to correctly assess the degree of correlation between the performance of the instruments used in the hedging strategy and the performance of the assets being hedged. Since

The success of our investment and trading activities will depend on the ability of the investment team to identify overvalued and undervalued investment opportunities and to exploit price discrepancies. This process involves a high degree of uncertainty. No assurance can be given that we will be able to identify suitable or profitable investment opportunities in which to deploy our capital. The success of the trading activities also depends on our ability to remain competitive with other over-the-counter traders and liquidity providers. Competition in trading is based on price, offerings, level of service, technology, relationships and market intelligence. The success of investment activities depends on our ability to source deals and obtain favorable terms. Competition in investment activities is based on relationships, the ability to offer strategic advice to portfolio companies and reputation. The barrier to entry in each of these businesses is very low and competitors can easily and will likely provide similar services in the near future. The success of our venture investments and trading business could suffer if we are not able to remain competitive.

Errors may occur with respect to trades executed on our behalf. Trade errors can result from a variety of situations, including, for example, when the wrong investment is purchased or sold or when the wrong quantity is purchased or sold. Trade errors frequently result in losses, which could be material. To the extent that an error is caused by a third party, we may seek to recover any losses associated with the error, although there may be contractual limitations on any third party’s liability with respect to such error.

Our investment and trading strategies depend on the ability to establish and maintain an overall market position in a combination of financial instruments. Our trading orders may not be executed in a timely and efficient manner because of various circumstances, including, for example, trading volume surges or systems failures attributable to us or our counterparties, brokers, dealers, agents or other service providers. In such an event, we might only be able to acquire or dispose of some, but not all, of the components of our positions, or if the overall positions were to need adjustments, we might not be able to make such adjustments. As a result, we would not be able to achieve our desired market position, which may result in a loss. In addition, we can be expected to rely heavily on electronic execution systems (and may rely on new systems and technology in the future), which may be subject to certain systemic limitations or mistakes, causing the interruption of trading orders made by us.

The success of our investment banking business, which is conducted through Galaxy Digital Partners LLC, our FINRA registered broker dealer, and Galaxy Digital Labs LLC, depends on creating and sustaining a demand for our financial and strategic advisory services with respect to the digital asset, cryptocurrency and blockchain technology sector while maintaining favorable margins. The ability to realize and maintain this demand could be negatively affected by numerous factors, many of which will be beyond our control and unrelated to our future work product.

Developments in the digital asset industry, which are expected to be rapid, could shift demand to new services and solutions. If, as a result of new technologies or changes in the industries we serve, our clients demand new services that we do not or are unable to provide, we may be less competitive in these new areas or need to make significant investment to meet that demand. Our strategy for developing our investment banking business focuses on responding to these types of developments by driving innovation that will enable us to expand our investment banking business into new growth areas. If we do not sufficiently invest in new technology and adapt to industry

We may become involved in advisory projects that are not directly related to the digital asset or blockchain industry. These projects are likely to relate to industries and clients that we believe will benefit in the future from blockchain technology and our experience and network in digital assets industry, however there can be no assurance that any such projects are successful. Further, as our investment banking business continues to develop and evolve, especially with regards to our investments in companies operating within the digital asset industry and the blockchain technology sector generally, we could be subject to unintended or unforeseen regulatory oversight, or come into the purview of regulators who seek to target us for our role in such transactions, which could expose us to regulatory actions, which may be inconsistently applied across jurisdictions.

The success of our investment banking business may be significantly affected by our ability to price our services properly. If we are not able to obtain favorable pricing for our services, the success of our investment banking business may materially suffer. The rates we charge for our services may be affected by a number of factors, including: general economic and political conditions, the competitive environment in our industry and the procurement practices of clients and their use of third-party advisors. In particular, because Galaxy Digital Partners LLC is as a broker-dealer and advises on mergers and acquisitions, we may be unable to purchase errors and omissions insurance without incurring material costs to our business. Therefore, we may become subject to a securities class-action lawsuits in connection with our advice on a public merger or acquisition and be without recourse from insurance.

We believe that currently there are limited competitors providing the digital asset investment banking services that we provide. However, the barrier to entry is very low and competitors can easily and will increasingly compete with our offerings. As a result, the success of our investment banking business, results of operations and financial condition could suffer if we are not able to remain competitive. The less we are able to differentiate our services and solutions or clearly convey the value of our services and solutions, the more risks we will face in winning new work in sufficient volumes and at target pricing, which could materially negatively impact the success or viability of our advisory services business. In addition, the introduction of new services or products by competitors could reduce our ability to obtain favorable pricing and impact the overall economics for the services or solutions offered.

Pursuant to its membership agreement with FINRA, Galaxy Digital Partners LLC—the entity through which we operate aspects of Investment Banking—is authorized as a broker-dealer to engage in business relating to underwriting or selling group participation (corporate securities other than mutual funds); private placements of securities; business advisory services concerning mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, equity financing, leveraged buy-outs and distressed corporate advisory; and referrals of broker-dealers, hedge funds and investors to unaffiliated broker-dealers for order execution, clearance and settlement. Despite its focus on providing services to companies in the digital assets space, however, because of regulatory uncertainty regarding how transactions in digital assets by broker-dealers are to be regulated, Galaxy Digital Partners LLC does not currently engage in underwriting services or private placement services involving tokens, digital securities, digital assets, initial coin offerings or other digital representations of securities or property on a blockchain. As a result, because we are unable or unwilling to provide broker-dealer services to prospective clients in connection with offerings involving tokens, digital assets, digital securities, initial coin offerings or other digital representations of securities or property on a blockchain, we may face challenges in winning new work in sufficient volumes and at target pricing from new or existing clients, which could negatively impact the success or viability of our advisory services business.

Additionally, because of regulatory uncertainty regarding how transactions in digital assets and digital securities by broker-dealers are or should be regulated, Galaxy Digital Partners LLC does not currently accept cryptocurrencies, digital assets or digital securities as payment for broker-dealer services, which could negatively

Credit risk is the risk that an issuer of a security or a counterparty will be unable or unwilling to satisfy payment or delivery obligations when due. In addition to the risk of an issuer of a security in which we invest failing or declining to perform on an obligation under the security, we are exposed to the risk that third parties, including trading counterparties, clearing agents, trading platforms, decentralized finance protocols, clearinghouses, custodians, administrators and other financial intermediaries that may owe us money, securities or other assets will not perform their obligations. Any of these parties might default on their obligations to us because of bankruptcy, lack of liquidity, operational failure or other reasons, in which event we may lose all or substantially all of the value of any such investment or trading transaction. When we trade on digital asset trading platforms that specialize in digital asset futures and derivatives, we are exposed to the credit risk of that digital asset trading platform.

In the case of loans that are secured by collateral, while we generally expect the value of the collateral to be greater than the value of such loans, the value of the collateral could actually be equal to or less than the value of such loans or could decline below the outstanding amount of such loans. This risk is heightened given that some portion of the collateral for these loans is expected to be digital assets, and thus subject to the volatility, liquidity and other risks detailed herein. Our ability to have access to the collateral could be limited by bankruptcy and other insolvency laws. Under certain circumstances, the collateral could be released with the consent of the lenders or pursuant to the terms of the underlying loan agreement with the borrower. There is no assurance that the liquidation of the collateral securing a loan would satisfy the borrower’s obligation in the event of non-payment of scheduled interest or principal, or that the collateral could be readily liquidated. As a result, we might not receive full payment on a secured loan investment to which we are entitled and thereby could experience a decline in the value of, or a loss on, the investment.

We may co-invest with third parties, including parties related to our Founder, through joint ventures or other entities. Such investments may include risks in connection with such third-party involvement, including the possibility that a third-party co-venturer may have financial difficulties, may have interests or goals that are inconsistent with ours or may be in a position to take action in a manner contrary to our investment objectives. We and our subsidiaries have loaned money to other companies as part of the balance sheet venture investment business and lending business. The return of principal of such loans will depend in large part on the creditworthiness and financial strength of the issuers of such loans. While we perform extensive due diligence on our investments and loans, nonetheless defaults are possible. In the event of a default by a borrower underlying an investment or loan, we might not receive payments to which we are entitled and thereby could experience a decline in the value of our investments in or loans to the borrower. In the case of loans that are secured by collateral, while we generally expect the value of the collateral to be greater than the value of such loans, the value of the collateral could actually be equal to or less than the value of such loans or could decline below the outstanding amount of such loans subsequent to the investment. This risk is heightened given that some portion of the collateral for these loans is often comprised of digital assets, and thus subject to the volatility, liquidity and other risks detailed herein. Our ability to have access to the collateral could be limited by bankruptcy and other insolvency laws. Under certain circumstances, the collateral could be released with the consent of the lenders or pursuant to the terms of the underlying loan agreement with the borrower. There is no assurance that the liquidation of the collateral securing a loan would satisfy the borrower’s obligation in the event of non-payment of scheduled interest or principal, or that the collateral could be readily liquidated at prices that would generate sufficient proceeds to repay the loans or at all. We may also be subject to lender liability claims for actions taken by us with respect to a borrower’s business or instances where we exercise control over the borrower. As a result, we might not receive full payment on a secured loan investment to which we are entitled and thereby could experience a decline in the value of, or a loss on, the investment.

In derivatives, we may invest in options on digital or non-digital assets. Purchasing and writing put and call options are highly specialized activities that entail greater-than-ordinary investment risks. An uncovered call writer’s loss is theoretically unlimited. Unlike exchange-traded options, which are standardized with respect to the underlying instrument, expiration date, contract size and strike price, the terms of over-the-counter options (options not traded on exchanges) are generally established through negotiation with the other party to the option contract.

The failure or bankruptcy of any of our clearing brokers (or futures commission merchants) could result in a substantial loss of our assets. Under the current regulations of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, a clearing broker maintains customers’ assets in a bulk segregated account. If a clearing broker fails to do so or is unable to satisfy a substantial deficit in a customer account, its other customers may be subject to risk of loss of their funds in the event of that clearing broker’s bankruptcy. In such an event, the clearing broker’s customers, such as us, are entitled to recover, even in respect of property specifically traceable to them, only a proportional share of all property available for distribution to all of that clearing broker’s customers.

Galaxy’s self-custody technology solution, which we operate through GDS Crypto Technologies Israel Ltd and GK8 LLC comprising the assets of GK8 acquired in February 2023, licenses self-custody software technology to customers that allows customers to generate and store the private keys to their digital assets, as well as to generate multi-signature backup keys, in a secure cold storage vault. Self-custody technology is novel and complex, and as with any new technology, we may encounter technical issues, disruptions or security weaknesses. As such, there is no assurance that our self-custody technology solution will continue to perform as expected. In the event that the technology does not perform appropriately or its security is compromised, our reputation could be adversely affected. Any number of technical changes, software upgrades, cybersecurity incidents or other changes to the technology may occur or be required from time to time, and if we are unable to troubleshoot and resolve any such issues successfully, it could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Cryptocurrencies, such as bitcoin, and the other types of digital assets in which we invest and trade involve a new and rapidly evolving industry of which blockchain technology is a prominent, but not unique, part. The growth of the digital asset industry in general, and distributed ledger technology that supports digital assets, is subject to a high degree of uncertainty. The factors affecting the further development of the digital asset industry, as well as distributed ledger technology, include:

Many digital asset networks, including Bitcoin and Ethereum, operate on open-source protocols maintained by groups of core developers. The open-source structure of these network protocols means that certain core developers and other contributors may not be compensated, either directly or indirectly, for their contributions in maintaining and developing the network protocol. A failure to properly monitor and upgrade network protocol could damage digital asset networks. As these network protocols are not sold and their use does not generate revenues for development teams, core developers may not be directly compensated for maintaining and updating the network protocols. Consequently, developers may lack a financial incentive to maintain or develop the network, and the core developers may lack the resources to adequately address emerging issues with the networks. There can be no guarantee that developer support will continue or be sufficient in the future. To the extent that material issues arise with certain digital asset network protocols and the core developers and open-source contributors are unable or unwilling to address the issues adequately or in a timely manner, such digital asset networks, and any corresponding digital assets held may be adversely affected.

Digital assets built on blockchain technology were only introduced in 2008 and remain in the early stages of development. The Bitcoin network was first launched in 2009 and bitcoins were the first cryptographic digital assets created to gain global adoption and critical mass. Cryptographic and algorithmic protocols governing the issuance of digital assets represent a new and rapidly evolving industry that is subject to a variety of factors that are difficult to evaluate. Because our results of operations and the market price of our Class A common stock may be closely correlated with the acceptance and perception of bitcoin and/or other digital assets, the realization of one or more of the following risks could materially adversely affect the market price of our Class A common stock:

Digital assets are a new asset class and represent a technological innovation and they are subject to a high degree of uncertainty. The adoption of digital assets will require growth in usage and in the blockchain technology generally for various applications. Adoption of digital assets will also require greater regulatory clarity. A lack of expansion in use of digital assets and blockchain technologies would adversely affect our financial performance. In addition, there is no assurance that digital assets generally will maintain their value over the long term. The value of digital assets is subject to risks related to our use. If growth in the use of digital assets generally occurs in the near or medium term, there is no assurance that such use will continue to grow over the long term. A contraction in use of digital assets may result in increased volatility or a reduction in digital asset prices, which would materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

Values of digital assets have historically been highly volatile. The value of cryptocurrencies is based in part on market adoption and future expectations, which may or may not be realized. Fluctuations in the price of various cryptocurrencies may cause uncertainty in the market and could negatively impact trading volumes of cryptocurrencies, which would adversely affect the success of our business, financial condition and results of operations. A decline in digital assets that we hold would negatively impact our financial position. A significant portion of demand for digital assets is generated by speculators and investors seeking to profit from the short- or long-term holding of these assets. Speculation regarding future appreciation in the value of a digital asset may inflate and make more volatile the price of that digital asset.

Several factors may affect the price of digital assets, particularly cryptocurrencies, including, but not limited to:

Additionally, some purportedly decentralized digital assets may be more centralized than widely believed, or may become more centralized over time, increasing the risk that an adverse event impacting an individual personality or entity could result in a reduction in the price of digital assets. While digital assets networks are typically decentralized and do not need to rely on any single government or institution to create, transmit and determine value, in reality a single personality or entity may have the ability to exert centralized authority over a network.

There are also volatility risks related to stablecoins, which are designed to have a relatively stable price that aligns with the price of an underlying physical asset, most commonly a fiat currency, such as U.S. dollars, or an exchange-traded commodity. The stability of a stablecoin results from the underlying assets backing the stablecoin that are held by the stablecoin’s issuer in segregated or omnibus accounts, among other factors such as the ability of a holder to redeem the stablecoin from its issuer for the underlying asset. The issuers of certain stablecoins currently retain broad discretion to determine the composition and amounts of assets held in the issuers’ accounts backing those stablecoins, and to substitute assets other than the fiat currency that is initially deposited. The composition of backing assets varies considerably across popular stablecoins, with some stablecoins backed entirely by off-chain assets including cash or short-term, highly liquid assets, and others backed by assets significantly less liquid than cash or cash equivalents. For example, Circle, which issues USDC, reports that it holds cash and short-term cash equivalents to back its USDC stablecoins. Meanwhile, Tether, which issues USDT, publishes a report on a quarterly basis which includes a breakdown of the consolidated total assets comprising its reserves backing USDT as of a given reporting date, and according to such reports, its reserves have included commercial paper and certificates of

Because stablecoins purport to be backed by underlying reserve assets, a fundamental issue in the event of the bankruptcy or insolvency of the issuer of a given stablecoin is which party possesses beneficial ownership of the underlying reserve assets: the holder of the stablecoin, or the issuer. If a particular stablecoin were structured in a manner that entitles its holder only to a contractual right to payment from the issuer (even if such payments are to be derived from the underlying assets), then the assets underlying the stablecoins may be considered to be the property of the issuer’s bankruptcy estate, such that all of the issuer’s creditors would be entitled to their pro rata share of such assets, with the stablecoin holder being treated as an unsecured creditor of the issuer. In such an event, if the issuer were to have insufficient funds or assets to satisfy the claims of its creditors, then the holder of a stablecoin would likely receive only a partial recovery, and not the full purported value of its stablecoin holdings. Conversely, if a particular stablecoin were structured in a manner that entitles its holder to absolute beneficial ownership of the underlying reserve assets, whereby the issuer holds bare legal title to the underlying assets but has no beneficial interest or property rights in such assets, then the holders would likely have a stronger claim on the underlying assets in the event of a bankruptcy or insolvency of the issuer. However, due to the novelty of stablecoins, courts have not yet considered the treatment of underlying reserve assets in the context of a bankruptcy or insolvency of a stablecoin issuer, and there can be no certainty as to a court’s determination in such circumstances.

Some digital assets may be more difficult to value than other investments because such assets may not have a liquid or transparent trading market. For example, some digital asset trading platforms have created their own digital assets and used them in opaque and potentially fraudulent manners to facilitate transactions and trading relationships. In certain circumstances, such digital assets are thinly traded, making it difficult to ascertain the true value of such assets. We may not be able to sell a digital asset promptly or at a reasonable time or price. Although there may be an institutional market for certain digital assets, it is not possible to predict exactly how the market for such assets will develop or whether it will continue to exist. A digital asset that was liquid at the time of purchase may subsequently become illiquid, and its value may decline as a result. In addition, transaction costs are generally higher for digital assets.

There is no assurance that cryptocurrencies will maintain their long-term value in terms of purchasing power in the future, or that acceptance of cryptocurrency payments by mainstream retail merchants and commercial businesses will continue to grow. Only a limited number of cryptocurrencies, including bitcoin, have become sometimes accepted as a means of payment for some goods and services, and use of cryptocurrencies by consumers to pay at retail and commercial outlets remains very limited. In part, this is because cryptocurrencies face significant scaling obstacles that can lead to high fees or slow transaction settlement times and attempts to increase the volume

Since the inception of the cryptoeconomy, numerous digital asset trading platforms have been sued, investigated, or shut down due to fraud, manipulative practices, business failure, and security breaches. In many of these instances, customers of these platforms were not compensated or made whole for their losses. Larger platforms like us are more appealing targets for hackers and malware, and may also be more likely to be targets of regulatory enforcement actions. For example, in February 2021, Bitfinex settled a long-running legal dispute with the State of New York related to Bitfinex's alleged misuse of over $800 million of customer assets and, in October 2023, hackers were reported to have stolen $570 million from the BNB Smart Chain, a blockchain linked with Binance, one of the world's largest platforms. Further, in 2022 and 2023, each of Celsius Networks, Voyager Digital, Three Arrows Capital, FTX and Genesis declared bankruptcy. In particular, in November 2022, FTX—which was at the time one of the world's largest and most popular digital asset trading platforms—became insolvent, and it was revealed that the platform had been misusing customer assets, resulting in a loss of confidence in participants of the cryptoeconomy and negative publicity surrounding crypto more broadly.

In December 2022, Galaxy Bahamas Ltd. received approval from the Securities Commission of The Bahamas for registration as a digital asset business under the Digital Assets and Registered Exchanges Act, 2020. Galaxy Bahamas Ltd. will physically operate out of the Bahamas and intends to initially serve as an extension of Trading and GPL, and also offer market making services. In light of the FTX bankruptcy and surrounding controversies, customers, counterparties and regulators may view operations within the Bahamanian cryptoeconomy as more risky than operations in other jurisdictions. See “Risks Related to Regulation, Information Systems and Privacy Matters—Regulatory changes or actions in foreign jurisdictions may affect our business or restrict the use of one or more digital assets, mining activity or the operation of their networks or the digital asset trading platform market in a manner that adversely affects our business” for a further discussion of these risks.

Further, in June 2023, the SEC initiated lawsuits against Coinbase and Binance alleging, among other things, that such firms were operating as unregistered securities exchanges in the United States, and identifying a number of digital assets that the SEC alleges to be unregistered securities. In addition, in November 2023, the SEC filed a complaint against Kraken and brought similar charges, including an allegation that Kraken operated as an unregistered securities exchange, brokerage and clearing agency. In November 2023, Binance pleaded guilty to the Justice Department's investigations into violations relating to the BSA, failure to register as a money transmitting business and the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, and the founder of Binance pleaded guilty to failing to maintain an effective AML program in violation of the BSA. As part of the settlement, Binance separately reached resolutions with the CFTC, FinCEN and OFAC; however, its case against the SEC's allegations remains ongoing, and Coinbase and Kraken have also denied the SEC’s allegations. The outcome of these lawsuits, their effect on the broader cryptoeconomy and the reputational impact on industry participants, remain uncertain.

In addition, there have been reports that a significant amount of trading volume on digital asset trading platforms is fabricated and false in nature, with a specific focus on unregulated platforms located outside the United States. Such reports may indicate that the market for digital asset trading platform activities is significantly smaller than otherwise understood.

Negative perception, a lack of stability and standardized regulation in the cryptoeconomy, and the closure or temporary shutdown of digital asset trading platforms due to fraud, business failure, hackers or malware, or government mandated regulation, and associated losses suffered by customers may reduce confidence in the cryptoeconomy and result in greater volatility of the prices of assets, including significant depreciation in value. Any of these events could have an adverse impact on our reputation, financial condition and our business.

Digital asset transactions are typically not reversible without the consent and active participation of the recipient of the transaction. Once a transaction has been verified and recorded in a block that is added to the blockchain, an incorrect transfer or theft of a digital asset generally will not be reversible and we may not be capable of seeking compensation for any such transfer or theft. Although transfers of digital assets that we hold and/or that are custodied on behalf of our customers will regularly be made to or from our custody accounts, it is possible that, through computer or human error, or through theft or criminal action, such digital assets could be transferred from our custody accounts in incorrect amounts or to unauthorized third parties, or to uncontrolled accounts.

Such events have occurred in connection with digital assets in the past. For example, in September 2014, the digital asset trading platform Huobi announced that it had sent approximately 900 bitcoins and 8,000 Litecoins (worth approximately $400,000 at the prevailing market prices at the time) to the wrong customers. To the extent that we are unable to seek a corrective transaction with such third party or are incapable of identifying the third party which has received our digital assets through error or theft, we will be unable to revert or otherwise recover incorrectly transferred digital assets. We will also be unable to convert or recover the digital assets transferred to uncontrolled accounts. To the extent that we are unable to seek redress for such error or theft, such loss could have a material adverse effect on us.

Due to the new and evolving nature of digital assets and the absence of comprehensive guidance with respect to digital assets, many significant aspects of the U.S. federal income tax treatment of digital assets are uncertain. Our operations and dealings, in or in connection with digital assets, as well as transactions in digital assets generally, could be subject to adverse tax consequences in the United States, including as a result of development of the legal regimes surrounding digital assets, and our operating results, as well as the price of digital assets, could be adversely affected thereby.

Many significant aspects of the U.S. federal income tax treatment of digital assets (including with respect to the amount, timing and character of income recognition) are uncertain. In 2014, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”) released a notice (the “Notice”) discussing certain aspects of digital assets for U.S. federal income tax purposes and, in particular, stating that such digital assets (1) are “property,” (2) are not “currency” for purposes of the rules relating to foreign currency gain or loss and (3) may be held as a capital asset. In 2019, the IRS released a revenue ruling and a set of “Frequently Asked Questions” (the “Ruling & FAQs”) that provide some additional guidance, including guidance to the effect that, under certain circumstances, hard forks of digital assets are taxable events giving rise to ordinary income and guidance with respect to the determination of the tax basis of digital assets. The Notice and the Ruling & FAQs, however, do not address other significant aspects of the U.S. federal income tax treatment of digital assets. We do not intend to request a ruling from the IRS on these issues, and we will take positions on these and other U.S. federal income tax issues relating to digital assets that we believe to be reasonable. There can be no assurance that the IRS will agree with the positions we take, and it is possible that the IRS will successfully challenge our positions.

There can be no assurance that the IRS will not alter its position with respect to digital assets in the future or that a court would uphold the treatment set forth in the Notice and the Ruling & FAQs. It is also unclear what additional guidance on the treatment of digital assets for U.S. federal income tax purposes may be issued in the future. Any such alteration of the current IRS positions or additional guidance could result in adverse tax consequences for us and could have an adverse effect on the value of bitcoin or other digital assets. Because of the evolving nature of digital assets, it is not possible to predict potential future developments that may arise with respect to digital assets. Such developments may increase the uncertainty with respect to the treatment of digital assets for U.S. federal income tax purposes. For example, the Notice addresses only digital assets that are “convertible virtual currency,” and it is conceivable that we will hold certain types of digital assets that are not within the scope of the Notice.

On November 15, 2021, President Biden signed into law the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (the “IIJA”). The IIJA implements a set of comprehensive tax information reporting rules that will apply to persons, including digital asset trading platforms and custodians, that regularly effect transfers of digital assets on behalf of other persons. In particular, these rules will require digital asset trading platforms and custodians to report certain digital asset transactions (including sales, exchanges and other transfers) effected on behalf of other persons on an annual return, in a manner similar to the current reporting rules for brokers that effect stock and other securities transactions on behalf of customers. The IRS and the U.S. Department of the Treasury recently released proposed regulations to implement these rules. The proposed regulations’ definition of the term “broker” is broad but, in a number of respects, is unclear in scope and would require many different types of participants in the digital asset market to perform information reporting and backup withholding functions. The proposed regulations do not address all aspects of the IIJA information reporting regime, and the application of the proposed regulations, if finalized in their current form, is uncertain in a number of respects, including with respect to the collection and reporting of cost basis information for digital assets and the scope of transactions subject to reporting. The IRS has requested comments on many aspects of these proposed regulations and there can be no assurance as to when the proposed regulations will be finalized or whether they will be finalized in their current form. In addition, beginning in 2024, the IIJA extends the reporting requirements for businesses that receive more than $10,000 in cash in a transaction (or related transactions) to transactions involving the receipt of digital assets with a fair market value of more than $10,000. These rules and the information reporting rules discussed above, the effects of which may depend in significant part on further regulatory or other guidance from the IRS, could create significant compliance burdens and uncertainties for us and our customers, and could affect the price of digital assets, which could have an adverse effect on our business.

The taxing authorities of certain states (i) have announced that they will follow the Notice with respect to the treatment of digital assets for state income tax purposes and/or (ii) have issued guidance exempting the purchase and/or sale of digital assets for fiat currency from state sales tax. It is unclear what further guidance on the treatment of digital assets for state tax purposes may be issued in the future. Any future guidance on the treatment of digital assets for state or local tax purposes could result in adverse tax consequences to us and could adversely affect the price of digital assets.

The treatment of digital assets for tax purposes by non-U.S. jurisdictions may differ from the treatment of digital currency for U.S. federal, state or local tax purposes. It is possible, for example, that a non-U.S. jurisdiction would impose sales tax or value-added tax on purchases and sales of digital assets for fiat assets. For instance, if a foreign jurisdiction with a significant share of the market of bitcoin users imposes onerous tax burdens on digital asset users, or imposes sales or value-added tax on purchases and sales of digital assets for fiat assets, such actions could result in decreased demand for digital currency in such jurisdiction, which could adversely affect the price of digital assets.

You are urged to consult your own tax advisors regarding the tax treatment of digital assets and the consequences of investing in us, given the nature of our business.

Cryptocurrencies, as an alternative to fiat currencies that are backed by central governments, are subject to supply and demand forces based upon the desirability of an alternative, decentralized means of buying and selling goods and services, and it is unclear how such supply and demand will be impacted by geopolitical events. For example, political or economic crises could motivate large-scale acquisitions or sales of digital assets either globally, regionally or locally. Large-scale sales of certain digital assets would result in a reduction in their value and could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and our value.

Momentum pricing typically is associated with growth stocks and other assets whose valuation, as determined by the investing public, accounts for anticipated future appreciation in value. Cryptocurrency and other digital asset

We engage in short sales and borrowings of digital assets. In a short sale, we would sell digital assets that we do not own, typically borrowed from a third party. We borrow digital assets for various purposes including but not limited to general liquidity purposes, such as for our capital and treasury operations, and as inventory for our trading businesses, counterparty trade settlement, collateral management and lending. Borrowing and lending markets for digital assets are currently limited and are unlikely to become as developed and stable as those for securities or other established assets in the near term, if ever, which exposes us to risks.

Because we would remain liable to return any digital assets that we borrowed, whether in connection with a short sale or otherwise, we would be required to purchase an equivalent amount of digital assets prior to the date on which delivery to the third-party lender is required. We will incur a loss as a result of a short sale or borrowing if the price of the digital assets increases between the date of the short sale or borrowing and the date on which we replace the borrowed digital assets. The amount of any loss will be increased by the amount of the premium or interest that we may be required to pay in connection with a short sale or borrowing. Short selling and borrowing exposes us to unlimited risk with respect to the borrowed digital assets because of the lack of an upper limit on the prices to which those digital assets can rise. Purchasing digital assets to close out a short position can itself cause the price of the digital assets to rise further, thereby exacerbating any losses. Under adverse market conditions, we may have difficulty purchasing digital assets to meet our short sale delivery obligations and may have to sell other digital assets to raise the necessary capital at a time when it would be unfavorable to do so. If a request for return of borrowed assets occurs at a time when other short sellers are receiving similar requests, a “short squeeze” can occur, and we may be compelled to replace borrowed digital assets previously sold short with purchases on the open market at the most disadvantageous time, possibly at prices significantly in excess of the proceeds received in originally selling the assets short. In addition, we may have difficulty purchasing assets to meet our delivery obligations if the assets sold short or borrowed by us have a limited daily trading volume or limited market capitalization. Short sales by us and “short” derivative positions are forms of investment leverage, and the amount of our potential loss is theoretically unlimited.

Additionally, in various contexts, the SEC and state securities regulators have alleged that programs where firms borrow digital assets in exchange for a promise to return those assets, plus a yield, were unlawfully unregistered securities offerings. We do not believe that our borrowing activities constitute the offer or sale of a security. Among other things, unlike in the circumstances where this has been alleged against others, our borrowing activities are not “yield” products widely offered as an investment vehicle to the general public. Instead, we borrow digital assets from institutional counterparties through individually negotiated transactions, and/or through one or more DeFi protocols. While we do not believe our borrowing activities constitute securities offerings, there is a risk that the SEC or state securities regulators could take a contrary view. In that case, our prior determination, even if reasonable under the circumstances, would not preclude legal or regulatory enforcement action, or lawsuits brought by our clients and counterparties, based on the presence of a security. See “ --A determination that a digital asset is a ‘security’, or that an activity in which we engage involves a ‘security’ transaction for purposes of the federal securities laws could have adverse regulatory consequences for us, and could therefore adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock,” for more information.

We lend digital assets to third parties, including affiliates. On termination of the loan, the borrower is required to return the digital assets to us; any gains or loss in the market price during the loan would inure to us. In the event

The success of cryptocurrency-based blockchain and other digital asset platforms will depend on the continued development of a stable public infrastructure, with the necessary speed, data capacity and security, and the timely development of complementary products such as high-speed modems for providing reliable internet access and services. Digital assets have experienced, and are expected to continue to experience, significant growth in the number of users and amount of content. Blockchains will continue to be increasingly interconnected with other blockchains and real-world applications. As services and applications continue to be built on top of blockchains, they will place increased reliance on third-party infrastructure providers, including in connection with cross-chain bridges and messaging, liquidity providers, wallets, data feeds and oracles. Reliance on any of these third-parties introduces additional risks and points of failure. There is no assurance that the relevant digital asset infrastructure will continue to be able to support the demands placed on it by this continued growth or that the performance or reliability of the technology will not be adversely affected by this continued growth. There is also no assurance that the infrastructure or complementary products or services necessary to make digital assets a viable product for their intended use will be developed in a timely manner, or that such development will not result in the requirement of incurring substantial costs to adapt to changing technologies. The failure of these technologies or platforms or their development could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us. Any number of technical changes, software upgrades, soft or hard forks, cybersecurity incidents or other changes to the underlying blockchain network may occur from time to time, causing incompatibility, technical issues, disruptions or security weaknesses to our systems. If we are unable to identify, troubleshoot and resolve any such issues successfully, we may no longer be able to support such cryptocurrency, our customers’ assets may be frozen or lost, the security of our hot or cold wallets may be compromised and our systems and technical infrastructure may be affected, all of which could adversely impact the success of our business, financial condition and results of operations. Cryptocurrencies are created, issued, transmitted, and stored according to protocols run by computers in the cryptocurrency network. It is possible these protocols have undiscovered flaws or could be subject to network scale attacks which could result in losses to us. Advancements in quantum computing could break the cryptographic rules of protocols which support certain of our assets.

If the digital asset rewards for mining blocks or the transaction fees for recording transactions on a digital asset network are not sufficiently high to incentivize miners, or if certain jurisdictions continue to limit mining activities, miners may cease expending processing power to mine blocks and confirmations of transactions on the digital asset’s blockchain could be slowed. We pay miner fees in connection with our digital asset transactions. Miner fees can be unpredictable. For instance, in 2017, bitcoin miner fees increased from approximately $0.35 per transaction in January 2017 to over $50 per transaction in December 2017. For example, the realization of one or more of the following risks could materially adversely affect the market price of our Class A common stock:

Rising adoption of blockchain networks leads to network congestion, as space on decentralized ledgers is inherently scarce. From a design standpoint, striking a balance between security, decentralization, and scalability (or transactional throughput) is subject of great debate among innovators and has led to the creation of a variety of networks that make different trade-offs to achieve different outcomes. If network congestion rises to the point where transaction fees make it prohibitively expensive for average users to operate on the network, those users may stop using the network, and application developers may seek to build on other networks where users can afford to transact.

Any number of anticipated or unforeseen technical changes or software upgrades, soft or hard forks, cybersecurity incidents or other changes to the underlying blockchain network may cause incompatibility, technical issues, disruptions or security weaknesses to our systems. If we or our third-party providers are unable to identify, troubleshoot and resolve any such issues successfully, we may no longer be able to support such cryptocurrency, our customers’ assets may be frozen or lost, the security of our hot or cold wallets may be compromised and our technical infrastructure may be affected, all of which could adversely impact the success of our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The governance of decentralized networks, such as the Bitcoin and Ethereum networks, is by voluntary consensus and open competition. As a result, there may be a lack of consensus or clarity on the governance of any particular decentralized digital asset network, which may stymie such network’s utility and ability to grow and face challenges. The foregoing notwithstanding, the protocols for some decentralized networks, such as the Bitcoin network, are informally managed by a group of core developers that propose amendments to the relevant network’s source code. Core developers’ roles evolve over time, largely based on self-determined participation. If a significant majority of users and miners adopt amendments to a decentralized network based on the proposals of such core developers, such network will be subject to new protocols that may adversely affect the value of the relevant digital asset.

As a result of the foregoing, it may be difficult to find solutions or marshal sufficient effort to overcome any future problems, especially long-term problems, on digital asset networks.

Many public blockchain networks, including the Bitcoin network, operate using open-source protocols, meaning that any user can download the software, modify it and then propose that the users and miners of bitcoin, for example, adopt the modification. The development team for a network might propose and implement amendments to a network’s source code through software upgrades altering the original protocol, including fundamental ideas such as the irreversibility of transactions and limitations on the validation of blockchain software distributed ledgers. Such changes to original protocols and software could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

When a modification is introduced and a substantial majority of users and miners consent to the modification, the change is implemented and the network remains uninterrupted. However, if less than a substantial majority of users and miners consent to the proposed modification, and the modification is not compatible with the software prior to its modification, the consequence would be what is known as a “hard fork” of the Bitcoin network, with one group running the pre-modified software and the other running the modified software. The effect of such a fork would be the existence of two versions of Bitcoin running in parallel, yet lacking interchangeability. Both Bitcoin and Ethereum networks have experienced “forks” in recent years. A fork can lead to a disruption of networks and our information technology systems, which can further lead to temporary or even permanent loss of customer assets.

Forks may also occur as a network community’s response to a significant security breach. For example, in June 2016, an anonymous hacker exploited a smart contract running on the Ethereum network to syphon approximately $60 million of ETH held by The DAO, a distributed autonomous organization, into a segregated account. In response to the hack, most participants in the Ethereum community elected to adopt a “fork” that effectively reversed the hack. However, a minority of users continued to develop the original blockchain, now referred to as “Ethereum Classic” with the digital asset on that blockchain now referred to as Ether Classic, or ETC. ETC now trades on several digital asset trading platforms.

A fork may also occur as a result of an unintentional or unanticipated software flaw in the various versions of otherwise compatible software that users run. Such a fork could lead to users and miners abandoning the digital asset with the flawed software. It is possible, however, that a substantial number of users and miners could adopt an incompatible version of the digital asset while resisting community-led efforts to merge the two chains. This could result in a permanent fork, as in the case of Ether and Ether Classic.

In addition, many developers have previously initiated hard forks in the Bitcoin blockchain to launch new digital assets, such as Bitcoin Cash, Bitcoin Gold, Bitcoin Silver and Bitcoin Diamond. Later, the Bitcoin Cash blockchain was again forked to launch a new digital asset, Bitcoin Satoshi’s Vision. To the extent such digital assets compete with a digital asset held by Galaxy, such competition could impact demand for such digital asset and could adversely impact the market price of our Class A common stock. Furthermore, a hard fork can lead to new security concerns. For example, when the Ethereum and Ethereum Classic networks split in July 2016, replay attacks, in which transactions from one network were rebroadcast to nefarious effect on the other network, plagued Ethereum trading platforms through at least October 2016. An Ethereum trading platform announced in July 2016 that it had lost 40,000 Ether Classic, worth about $100,000 at that time, as a result of replay attacks. Another possible result of a hard fork is an inherent decrease in the level of security due to significant amounts of mining power remaining on one network or migrating instead to the new forked network. After a hard fork, it may become easier for an individual miner or mining pool’s hashing power to exceed 50% of the processing power of the digital asset network that retained or attracted less mining power, thereby making digital assets that rely on proof-of-work more susceptible to attack.

A hard fork may adversely affect the price of the digital asset at the time of announcement or adoption. For example, the announcement of a hard fork could lead to increased demand for the pre-fork digital asset, in anticipation that ownership of the pre-fork digital asset would entitle holders to a new digital asset following the fork. The increased demand for the pre-fork digital asset may cause the price of the digital asset to rise. After the hard fork, it is possible the aggregate price of the two versions of the digital asset running in parallel would be less than the price of the digital asset immediately prior to the fork.

The Ethereum network is in the process of implementing software upgrades and other changes to its protocol. For example, in September 2022, the Ethereum network activated the long-awaited “Merge” upgrade. The Merge effectively swapped Ethereum’s consensus mechanism away from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake. A digital asset network’s consensus mechanism is a material aspect of its source code, and any failure to properly implement such a change could have a material adverse effect on the value of digital assets that rely on the Ethereum network, including some of which we hold, and the market price of our Class A common stock. Although the Merge appears to be successful thus far, it is possible that the Merge introduced a currently undiscovered error or vulnerability. It is expected that further developments and forks for the Ethereum network are forthcoming.

Any future forks could adversely affect our business and the market price of our Class A common stock.

We engage in various DeFi activities. As of December 31, 2023, Galaxy's digital intangible assets associated with decentralized finance protocols was approximately $206.6 million. DeFi protocols achieve their purposes through self-executing smart contracts. Some of these DeFi protocols allow users to, for example, transfer digital

DeFi refers to a variety of blockchain-based applications or protocols that provide for peer-to-peer financial services using smart contracts and other technology rather than such services being offered by central intermediaries. There are various DeFi applications and protocols, each with its own unique risks and uncertainties. Common DeFi applications include borrowing/lending digital assets and providing liquidity or market making in digital assets. DeFi applications and ecosystems are demonstrating how public blockchains and smart contracts can revolutionize financial services, but the nascent technology comes with several risks that could materially and adversely affect our investments and trading strategies. It is difficult to quantify the amount of leverage that exists within the DeFi ecosystem and price volatility can result in deleveraging that moves asset prices dramatically. In addition, smart contracts may contain bugs which put funds at risk of theft or loss. Furthermore, in certain decentralized protocols, it may be difficult or impossible to verify the identity of a transaction counterparty necessary to comply with any applicable anti-money laundering, countering the financing of terrorism, or sanctions regulations or controls.

The complexity and interconnectedness of digital asset networks, applications, and economic systems enables new forms of malicious attacks that leverage a feature or vulnerability of one system to attack another. Such an attack may take the form of a temporary manipulation of the price of certain digital assets that trigger second order behaviors, such as automatic collateral liquidations on decentralized applications or digital asset trading platforms. Such an attack could adversely affect investments. A malicious actor can exploit the structure of one or a series of smart contracts or applications in ways that do not technically constitute exploitation of a “bug” or flaw in the smart contract or application. For example, such an exploit has occurred repeatedly in the Ethereum DeFi ecosystem, whereby a decentralized trading platform or lending application is designed to reference an external pricing source of a particular digital asset to determine when to liquidate collateral. By manipulating the price of the particular digital asset on a third-party platform (such as a digital asset trading platform), the pricing source used by the decentralized trading platform or application is consequently manipulated, which then leads to uneconomic collateral liquidations on the decentralized trading platform or application. Such liquidations may be processed automatically and could have a material adverse effect on our investments and trading strategies.

The U.S. financial system is extensively regulated at both the federal and state level with a particular focus on intermediaries such as banks, broker-dealers, futures commission merchants, investment funds, investment advisers, trading platforms, clearinghouses and custodians. U.S. laws and regulations impose specific obligations on financial services intermediaries both for the protection of their customers and for the protection of the U.S. financial system as a whole. These include capital requirements, activities restrictions, reporting and disclosure requirements and obligations to monitor the activities of their customers and to ensure that the intermediaries’ activities and the activities of their customers are conducted in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. Non-U.S. laws and regulatory requirements may impose similar obligations. By seeking to eliminate or substantially limit the role of traditional financial services intermediaries in lending, brokering, advisory, trading, clearing, custodying and other financial services activities, DeFi protocols pose numerous challenges to the longstanding oversight framework developed under U.S. law and used by U.S. and other regulators. For example, one former commissioner of the CFTC has publicly stated that he believes certain DeFi protocols and activities operating without regulatory licensing likely violates the Commodity Exchange Act. Moreover, in June 2023, a federal judge ruled that the CFTC

There has also been an increase in SEC oversight, including reported SEC subpoenas of teams behind DeFi platforms, which indicates that the SEC believes DeFi activities may in themselves implicate federal securities laws. In April 2023, the SEC reopened the comment period and provided supplemental information for its proposed amendments to the definition of “exchange” under the Exchange Act. In the supplemental information, the SEC states that it believes DeFi protocols, and the parties that develop them, could be exchanges subject to federal securities laws if they facilitate the trading of digital asset securities. In announcing the reopening, Chair Gensler stated “calling yourself a DeFi platform is not an excuse to defy the securities laws.” It is not possible to predict how or when these developments will be resolved or what the impact on specific DeFi protocols will be. Because it is unclear both which digital assets on a DeFi platform may be deemed securities and which DeFi activities in themselves may implicate the federal securities laws, it is likely that the DeFi industry will face a prolonged period of regulatory uncertainty. It is possible that some DeFi protocols, including those using digital assets that we invest in, will be subjected to costly and burdensome compliance regimes or even prohibited outright.

In addition, traditional financial services intermediaries bear significant and ongoing costs to comply with financial services regulation, and individually or through trade associations may actively oppose legislative or regulatory efforts to accommodate DeFi activities that compete with their core service offerings. Traditional financial services intermediaries may instead actively encourage policymakers and regulatory authorities to take actions that impede the development and use of DeFi protocols. DeFi protocols that significantly improve on traditional financial services offerings by making transactions more efficient and inexpensive, including those using digital assets, can be expected to draw the most attention and potential opposition from traditional financial services intermediaries, the associations that represent them, and their legislative allies.

Further, most DeFi activities rely on users maintaining “self-hosted” wallets, and DeFi protocols generally do not engage in anti-money laundering (“AML”) and know-your-customer (“KYC”) or other customer identification and due diligence processes, each of which have raised concerns for regulators, including international standard-setting bodies such as the Financial Action Task Force.

Legislative bodies and regulators may be required to adapt their regulatory models to accommodate decentralized financial activities, or take novel steps to supervise, limit or even prohibit decentralized financial activities.

Any action taken by federal, state or international policymakers or regulators to address risks and perceived risks to the public or to the U.S. and other countries’ financial systems from decentralized financial activities, or the threat of such action, could have a material adverse impact on one or more digital assets and therefore materially and adversely impact our investments, our revenue and the market price of our Class A common stock.

If a malicious actor or botnet (a volunteer or hacked collection of computers controlled by networked software coordinating the actions of the computers) obtains a majority of hash rate on a proof-of-work system, or otherwise controls a sizeable portion of supply in a proof-of-stake system, it can maliciously disrupt the blockchain, either by

For example, in August 2020, the Ethereum Classic Network was the target of two double-spend attacks by an unknown actor or actors that gained more than 50% of the processing power of the Ethereum Classic Network. The attack resulted in reorganizations of the Ethereum Classic Blockchain that allowed the attacker or attackers to reverse previously recorded transactions in excess of over $5.0 million and $1.0 million.

In addition, in May 2019, the Bitcoin Cash network experienced a 51% attack when two large mining pools reversed a series of transactions in order to stop an unknown miner from taking advantage of a flaw in a recent Bitcoin Cash protocol upgrade. Although this particular attack was arguably benevolent, certain individuals believe it negatively impacts the Bitcoin Cash network.

Further, a malicious actor or botnet could create a flood of transactions in order to slow down the relevant digital asset network. For example, on June 2, 2018, the Horizen network was the target of a double-spend attack by an unknown actor that gained more than 50% of the processing power of the Horizen network. The attack was the result of delayed submission of blocks to the Horizen network. The core developers of Zen have since begun to implement mitigation procedures to significantly increase the difficulty of attacks of this nature by introducing a penalty for delayed block submissions.

The crossing of the 50% threshold indicates a greater risk that a single mining pool or small group of mining pools could exert authority over the validation of digital asset transactions, and this risk is heightened if over 50% of the processing power on the network falls within the jurisdiction of a single governmental authority. To the extent that such events occur on the network of a digital asset that we hold, if the network participants, including any core developers and administrators of mining pools, do not ensure greater decentralization of mining processing power of such network, the feasibility of a malicious actor obtaining control of the processing power on such network will increase, which may adversely affect our business.

More generally, the practice of Maximum Extractable Value, or MEV, has become standard and widespread across proof-of-stake-based smart contracting platforms like Ethereum. MEV also refers to “Miner Extractable Value” for proof-of-work-based platforms like the Bitcoin Network. MEV is the practice by which miners and validators exploit their role in a particular digital asset network in order to extract value from transactors by censoring, frontrunning, backrunning or otherwise executing arbitrage strategies against transactors. MEV can reduce the effectiveness of certain blockchain transactions and in turn increase the cost of transacting on networks, which may discourage users from transacting on such networks altogether. There are currently no means to completely mitigate the effects of MEV, and to the extent that we transact on these blockchains, whether for proprietary purposes or on behalf of our clients, we may be unable to protect ourselves or our clients from the effects or impacts of MEV, which could include a reduction in the speed, quality and/or security of our trades. Furthermore, if any one digital asset network’s user experience is harmed at scale, the value of the digital assets carried on that network could decline. The occurrence of any of the aforementioned risks associated with MEV could adversely affect the value of our transactions and investments, our ability to operate efficiently and the market price of our Class A common stock.

A malicious actor may also obtain control over the Bitcoin network through its influence over core developers by gaining direct control over a core developer or an otherwise influential programmer. To the extent that the

Any of the above events could materially and adversely affect certain of our investments and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

We rely on our affiliates, third-party banks and trading venues to provide our cryptocurrency products and services to our customers. The cryptocurrency market operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The cryptocurrency market does not have a centralized clearinghouse, and transactions in cryptocurrencies rely on direct settlements between third parties after trades are executed. Accordingly, we rely on our affiliates and third-party banks to facilitate cash settlements between customers and us and rely on the ability of our trading venues to complete cryptocurrency settlements. In addition, we must maintain cash assets in our bank accounts sufficient to meet the working capital needs of our business, which includes deploying available working capital to facilitate cash settlements between us and our customers or us and our trading venues. If our affiliates, third-party banks or trading venues have operational failures and cannot perform and facilitate our routine cash and cryptocurrency settlement transactions, we will be unable to support normal cryptocurrency trading operations and these disruptions could have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations. Similarly, if we fail to maintain cash assets in our bank accounts sufficient to meet the working capital needs of our business and necessary to complete routine cash settlements related to our trading activity, such failure could impair our ability to support normal trading operations and these disruptions could have an adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may also be harmed by the loss of any of our banking partners and trading venues. As a result of the many regulations applicable to cryptocurrencies or the risks of digital assets generally, many financial institutions have decided, and other financials may in the future decide, to not provide bank accounts (or access to bank accounts), payments services or other financial services to companies providing cryptocurrency products, including us. Similarly, a number of such companies have had their existing bank accounts closed by their banks. Banks may refuse to provide bank accounts and other banking services to digital asset-related companies, including us, for a number of reasons, such as perceived compliance risks or costs. Galaxy has in the past held accounts at Silvergate Bank and Signature Bank. We have diverse U.S. banking relationships, with most of our deposits at large, systemically important financial institutions. Any inability to procure or keep banking services would have a material and adverse effect on us. Similarly, continued general banking difficulties may decrease the utility or value of digital assets or harm public perception of those assets. In addition to banks, other third-party service providers including accountants, lawyers and insurance providers may also decline to provide services to companies engaged in digital asset-related businesses because of the perceived risk profile associated with such businesses or the lack of regulatory certainty. Consequently, if we or our trading venues cannot maintain sufficient relationships with the banks that provide these services, banking regulators restrict or prohibit banking of cryptocurrency businesses, or if these banks impose significant operational restrictions, it may be difficult for us to find alternative business partners for our cryptocurrency offerings, which may result in a disruption of our business and could have an adverse impact on our reputation, business, investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets, the value of any investment in us, financial condition and results of operations.

The cryptoeconomy is relatively novel and does not have the same access to policymakers and lobbying organizations in many jurisdictions compared to industries with which digital assets may be seen to compete, such as banking, payments and consumer finance. Competitors from other, more established industries may have greater access to and influence with governmental officials and regulators and may be successful in persuading these policymakers that digital assets require heightened levels of regulation compared to the regulation of traditional financial services. As a result, new laws and regulations may be proposed and adopted in the United States and

As digital assets have grown in both popularity and market size, various U.S. federal, state, and local and foreign governmental organizations, consumer agencies and public advocacy groups have been examining the operations of cryptocurrency networks, users and platforms, with a focus on how digital assets can be used to launder the proceeds of illegal activities, fund criminal or terrorist enterprises, and the safety and soundness of platforms and other service providers that hold digital assets for users. Many of these entities have called for heightened regulatory oversight, and have issued consumer advisories describing the risks posed by digital assets to users and investors.

For instance, on September 16, 2022, the U.S. Treasury and Justice Departments released regulatory and legislative recommendations and priorities to address illicit finance risks connected to the digital assets ecosystem, following President Biden’s executive order on the regulation of digital assets. The reports reflect the proactive posture that both the U.S. Treasury and Justice Departments have taken towards the enforcement and implementation of AML standards in the digital asset ecosystem. In July 2019, the U.K.’s Financial Conduct Authority proposed rules to address harm to retail customers arising from the sale of derivatives and exchange-traded notes that reference certain types of cryptocurrencies, contending that they are “ill-suited” to retail investors due to extreme volatility, valuation challenges and association with financial crimes. The rules, which entered into force on January 6, 2021, prohibit the sale, marketing and distribution to retail clients in the U.K. of derivatives and exchange traded notes that reference certain types of unregulated, transferable cryptocurrencies. The prohibition applies to investment firms, credit institutions and branches in the U.K. of third-country firms that market, distribute or sell digital asset-derivatives or digital asset trading platform traded notes in, or from, the U.K. to retail clients.

We currently offer services involving, and expect to continue to support, various digital assets that represent units of value on smart contracts deployed on a third party blockchain. Smart contracts are programs that store and transfer value and execute automatically when certain conditions are met. Since smart contracts typically cannot be stopped or reversed, vulnerabilities in their programming and design can have damaging, and even permanent, ramifications. For instance, in April 2018, a batch overflow bug was found in many Ethereum-based ERC20-compatible smart contract tokens that allowed hackers to create a large number of smart contract tokens, causing multiple digital asset platforms worldwide to shut down ERC20-compatible token trading. Similarly, in March 2020, a design flaw in the MakerDAO smart contract caused forced liquidations of digital assets at significantly discounted prices, resulting in millions of dollars of losses to users who had deposited digital assets into the smart contract. If any such vulnerabilities or flaws come to fruition, smart contract-based digital assets may suffer negative publicity, be exposed to security vulnerabilities, decline significantly in value, and lose liquidity over a short period of time. As smart contract-based digital assets continue to develop and evolve, we may be subject to unintended or unforeseen regulatory risks and regulatory actions, which may be inconsistently applied across jurisdictions.

In some cases, smart contracts can be controlled by one or more “admin keys” or users with special privileges, or “super users.” These users have the ability to unilaterally make changes to the smart contract, enable or disable features on the smart contract, change how the smart contract receives external inputs and data, and make other changes to the smart contract. For smart contracts that hold a pool of assets, these users may also be able to extract funds from the pool, liquidate assets held in the pool, or take other actions that decrease the value of the assets held by the smart contract in reserves. Even for digital assets that have adopted a decentralized governance mechanism, such as smart contracts that are governed by the holders of a governance token, such governance tokens can be concentrated in the hands of a small group of core community members, who would be able to make similar changes unilaterally to the smart contract. If any such super user or group of core members unilaterally make adverse changes to a smart contract, the design, functionality, features and value of the smart contract, its related digital assets may be harmed. In addition, assets held by the smart contract in reserves may be stolen, misused, burnt,

Yield farming and the use of liquidity pools is also subject to regulatory uncertainty. Yield farming typically involves a number of different transactions and interactions with multiple protocols (lending, borrowing, and receiving digital assets that represent a share of a liquidity pool) that may individually or taken together fall under the purview of a number of state or federal regulatory authorities. However, the extent to which any such regulation applies to these activities remains an area of significant uncertainty. Because there is uncertainty regarding how yield farming, liquidity pools and DeFi protocols should be regulated, and the extent to which such activities are subject to existing regulations, participating in such activities poses heightened regulatory concerns. See “—DeFi protocols and digital assets used in DeFi protocols pose heightened regulatory concerns even beyond those that face digital asset networks and digital assets generally.”

We have developed and invest, directly and indirectly through our sponsored funds, in NFTs. We also invest in companies that create and support NFTs. NFTs are unique, one-of-a-kind digital assets made possible by certain digital asset network protocols. Because of their non-fungible nature, NFTs introduce digital scarcity and have become popular as online “collectibles,” similar to physical rare collectible items, such as trading cards or art. Like real world collectibles, the value of NFTs may be prone to “boom and bust” cycles as popularity increases and subsequently subsides. Certain metadata pertaining to NFTs or the collectible itself (such as digital art) represented by the NFT may be stored “offchain,” i.e., not on a decentralized digital asset network. If the entity behind an NFT project or its third-party hosting service or platform ceases hosting relevant data relating to NFTs, such NFTs may become worthless. If any of these events were to occur, it could adversely affect the value of certain of our future investments and strategies. In addition, because NFTs generally rely on the same types of underlying technologies as Digital Assets, most risks applicable to digital assets (including phishing, hacking, blockchain risks) are also applicable to NFTs and hence any investment into NFTs will be subject to general digital assets risks as described elsewhere in these risk factors. We have also developed and released our own NFTs. Prior to developing and releasing an NFT, we consult external legal counsel to gain comfort that the NFTs we develop and release are not securities under the federal securities laws. However, we recognize that the application of the securities laws to NFTs is particularly uncertain, as most guidance related to the application of the federal securities laws to digital assets has been applied to more fungible forms of digital assets, such as cryptocurrencies. Any determination that the NFTs we develop and release are securities under the federal securities laws would adversely affect us. See “—A determination that a digital asset is a “security”, or that an activity in which we engage involves a “security” transaction for purposes of the federal securities laws could adversely affect the value of that digital asset and potentially digital assets generally, and could therefore adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations as well as the market price of the Class A common stock.”

Cryptocurrency assets are typically controlled by the holder of the unique private key for the cryptocurrency wallet in which the cryptocurrency assets are held. While public addresses are generally published when used in a transaction on a blockchain, private keys are required to access, retrieve or transfer the cryptocurrency assets in the wallet. Therefore, protection and safekeeping of private keys is necessary to prevent unauthorized third party access to or control over the cryptocurrency assets held in a cryptocurrency wallet. The custodian for digital assets stored on behalf of GPL or GPL customers maintains at all times at least one backup set of keys for this wallet. If any of the private keys for these wallets are stolen, destroyed, lost or otherwise compromised or unavailable, and if the backup versions of these private keys are not available at the time or have been otherwise stolen or compromised, our custodian will not be able to access the digital assets held in the omnibus wallets. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies and digital assets, including wallets and other blockchain technologies, can be hacked or otherwise subject to security breaches and other malicious activities, which may result in, among other things, malicious actors obtaining the ability to retrieve, transfer and otherwise misappropriate the digital assets held in custody for GPL and GPL customers. Destruction, loss or theft of private keys for, or hack or other compromise or unavailability of, the

The financial services industry is among the most extensively regulated industries in the United States. We operate an investment advisor and broker-dealer, each of which is subject to a specific and extensive regulatory scheme. In addition, we are subject to numerous state and federal laws and regulations of general application. It is very difficult to predict the future impact of the legislative and regulatory requirements affecting our business and our clients’ businesses.

Our subsidiary Galaxy Digital Capital Management LP (“GDCM LP”) is registered as an “investment adviser” with the SEC under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (as amended, the “Advisers Act”) and is regulated thereunder. GDCM LP, and certain affiliates, also manage several funds that do not invest in securities and therefore GDCM LP, and such affiliates, do not manage such funds in a registered investment adviser capacity. GDCM LP also intends to provide advice to funds that are registered as “investment companies” under the Investment Company Act. Moreover, the Advisers Act mandates that if a registered adviser has custody of client funds and securities, it must maintain them with a Qualified Custodian. Given the characteristics of digital assets and the relative immaturity of the asset class, there are limited numbers of Qualified Custodians available at this time (if any) and there can be no assurance that we will ourselves qualify as, or be successful in maintaining client funds and securities with, a Qualified Custodian. Difficulties in finding a Qualified Custodian could have a material adverse effect on the asset management business, including potentially causing it to liquidate a substantial portion of our asset management portfolio. There is also a risk that the SEC determines that certain custodians used are not, regardless of their representations to the contrary, Qualified Custodians, which would potentially require the asset management group to move certain digital assets and/or subject it to regulatory action. The uncertainty and potential difficulties associated with this question and related questions could materially and adversely affect our asset management business. The Advisers Act and the Investment Company Act, together with related regulations and interpretations of the SEC, impose numerous obligations and restrictions on investment advisers and mutual funds, including requirements relating to the safekeeping of client funds and securities, limitations on advertising, disclosure and reporting obligations, prohibitions on fraudulent activities, restrictions on certain transactions between an adviser and its clients, and between a mutual fund and its advisers and affiliates, and other detailed operating requirements, as well as general fiduciary obligations.

Our subsidiary Galaxy DBL LLC is a CFTC-regulated commodity trading advisor and commodity pool operator and is a member of the National Futures Association (the “NFA”). As such, it is subject to regulatory requirements under the Commodity Exchange Act, CFTC regulations and NFA bylaws and regulations. These include disclosure and reporting requirements, restrictions on advertising, AML and KYC protocols, registration and licensing of certain personnel and conduct and anti-fraud requirements, among others.

Galaxy Digital Partners LLC, our broker-dealer subsidiary, is subject to regulatory restrictions and requirements imposed by applicable statutes, regulations and policies in the jurisdictions in which we operate. U.S. government agencies and self-regulatory organizations, including U.S. state securities commissions, are empowered to enforce the regulatory restrictions and requirements applicable to us and conduct administrative proceedings that can result in censure, fine, the issuance of cease and desist orders or the suspension or expulsion of a broker-dealer from registration or membership. Galaxy Digital Partners LLC is registered with the SEC and with all 50 U.S. states and is a member of FINRA, a securities industry self-regulatory organization that supervises and regulates the conduct

Our KYC and onboarding processes are designed to verify the identity of our customers, manage associated risks and prevent offers and sales of some digital assets and other products and services to certain persons, it is nevertheless possible that customers could intentionally and fraudulently provide us with false information, act contrary to, or otherwise circumvent, our KYC and onboarding policies or procedures. Any improper provision of false information or circumvention of our KYC policies or procedures could result in unintended offering or sale of our services and products to parties that we intend to restrict from our services or products and one or more regulators deeming our KYC policies and procedures inadequate and not in compliance with relevant laws and regulations. We also have policies and procedures relating to the safeguarding of digital assets, which are designed to prevent conflicts of interest, including the comingling of assets. See “Information About Galaxy—Our Policies and Procedures” in this prospectus and “—Our and our third-party service providers’ failure to safeguard and manage our and our customers’ funds and digital assets could adversely impact our business, operating results and financial condition” below for additional information. Any circumvention or failure of our policies could, among other things, require changes to our business practices and scope of operations or harm our reputation, which, in turn could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition or business.

In addition, due to our business activities, we are subject to, or as a result of the Reorganization, may soon become subject to, ongoing examinations, oversight, and reviews by U.S. federal and state regulators, and financial service regulators, which each have broad discretion to audit and examine our business. We are periodically subject to audits and examinations by these regulatory authorities. As a result of findings from these audits and examinations, regulators have, are, and may in the future require us to take certain actions, including amending, updating, or revising our compliance measures from time to time, limiting the kinds of customers which we provide services to, changing, terminating, or delaying the introduction of our existing or new product and services, and undertaking further external audits or being subject to further regulatory scrutiny. We have received, and may in the future receive, examination reports citing violations of rules and regulations, inadequacies in existing compliance programs, and requiring us to enhance certain practices with respect to our compliance program, including due diligence, monitoring, training, reporting, and recordkeeping. Implementing appropriate measures to properly remediate these examination findings may require us to incur significant costs, and if we fail to properly remediate any of these examination findings, we could face civil litigation, significant fines, damage awards, forced removal of certain employees including members of our executive team, barring of certain employees from participating in our business in whole or in part, revocation of existing licenses, limitations on existing and new products and services, reputational harm, negative impact to our existing relationships with regulators, exposure to criminal liability, or other regulatory consequences. Further, we believe increasingly strict legal and regulatory requirements and additional regulatory investigations and enforcement, any of which could occur or intensify, may continue to result in changes to our business, as well as increased costs, and supervision and examination for both ourselves and our agents and service providers. Moreover, new laws, regulations, or interpretations may result in additional litigation, regulatory investigations, and enforcement or other actions, including preventing or delaying us from offering

All of the foregoing laws and regulations, as well as any other laws and regulations we are or may become subject to, are complex and we are required to expend significant resources to monitor and maintain our compliance with such laws and regulations. Any failure on our part to comply with these and other applicable laws and regulations could result in regulatory fines, suspensions of personnel or other sanctions, including revocation of our registration or that of our subsidiaries as an investment adviser, broker-dealer, commodity pool operator or trust company, as the case may be, which could, among other things, require changes to our business practices and scope of operations or harm our reputation, which, in turn could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, financial condition or business.

Furthermore, our KYC and onboarding processes are designed to verify the identity of our customers, manage associated risks and prevent offers and sales of some digital assets and other products and services to certain persons. We have tailored our anti-money laundering (“AML”) and KYC protocols to each of our business lines. For our Asset Management business, there are two main processes and protocols utilized by our funds: the majority of our funds outsource AML and KYC to an industry-standard fund administrator, which requires all investors to undergo a diligence process similar to that of broker dealers, while our other funds rely on a combination of in-house personnel and an external fund administrator, with in-house personnel collecting documentation required for investor onboarding for the external fund administrator, which performs AML diligence using those materials. For the balance sheet venture investments line of our Asset Management business, which covers investments made with our firm capital, we utilize a combination of background checks and representations and warranties, whereby we initially conduct background checks on relevant parties and may perform additional procedures, such as obtaining representations and warranties, as a result of our assessment of such background checks. For our Global Markets segment, including the Trading and Investment Banking businesses, we apply different AML and KYC policies and procedures to sub-segments; for example, our counterparty-facing Trading businesses have their own separate AML and KYC regimes, which are handled in-house and modeled after policies similar to the robust procedures that apply to money services businesses. Investment Banking follows AML and KYC policies as outlined by FINRA as a registered broker-dealer. While we do not have one comprehensive set of policies and procedures that apply across this segment, the protocols that are in place are designed to comply with customer due diligence requirements and to address the specific needs of our counterparty-facing and advisory businesses. Our Digital Infrastructure Solutions segment operates similarly, with separate AML and KYC regimes applying to hosting clients and mining finance clients within our Mining business, with such in-house regimes being modeled after the procedures that apply to money services businesses and complying with customer due diligence requirements. We do not have a formal policy in place for our GK8 business, but rather deal with any diligence needs on a case-by-case basis consistent with the level of robustness that we apply to our other business lines. We believe we have developed and maintained administrative, technical, and physical safeguards designed to comply with applicable legal requirements and industry standards.

As our business continues to grow, we must continue to strengthen our associated internal controls and ensure that our third-party custodians and other service providers do the same. Our success and the success of our product offerings require significant confidence in our and our third-party service providers’ ability to properly custody and

In furtherance of our goal of safekeeping customer assets, our Galaxy Prime customer agreements provide that Uniform Commercial Code (“UCC”) Article 8 is applicable to the customer’s digital assets that are credited to the customer’s account with Galaxy and custodied in omnibus accounts maintained by Galaxy with third-party custodians appointed by Galaxy, with an express agreement with the customer that such digital assets will be treated as financial assets for purposes of UCC Article 8. UCC Article 8 provides that financial assets held through an intermediary are not property of such intermediary and are not subject to the claims of its general creditors. In light of UCC Article 8, we believe that a court should not treat such digital assets as part of our general estate (except to the extent such digital assets are removed from the customer’s account pursuant to rehypothecation or similar arrangements that may be set forth in our customer documents, to the extent applicable); however, due to the novelty of digital assets, courts have not yet considered this type of treatment for custodied digital assets and there can be no certainty as to a court’s determination in such circumstances. As such, there is a risk that digital assets held in omnibus accounts by our third-party custodians may be considered to be the property of our bankruptcy estate and, in the event of our bankruptcy, the digital assets held in custody with third-party custodians on behalf of our customers could be subject to bankruptcy proceedings and such customers could be treated as our general unsecured creditors.

Furthermore, it is possible that hackers, employees or service providers acting contrary to our or our third-party custodians’ policies, or others could circumvent these safeguards to improperly access our systems or documents, or the systems or documents of our third-party service providers or agents, and improperly access, obtain, and misuse customer digital assets and funds. The methods used to obtain unauthorized access, disable, or degrade service or sabotage systems are also constantly changing and evolving and may be difficult to anticipate or detect for long periods of time. Our and our third-party custodians’ insurance coverage for such impropriety is limited and may not cover the extent of loss nor the nature of such loss, in which case we may be liable for the full amount of losses suffered, which could be greater than all of our assets. Our and our third-party custodians’ ability to maintain insurance is also subject to the insurance carriers’ ongoing underwriting criteria. Any loss of customer funds or digital assets could result in a subsequent lapse in insurance coverage, which could cause a substantial business disruption, adverse reputational impact, inability to compete with our competitors, and regulatory investigations, inquiries, or actions. Additionally, transactions undertaken through electronic channels may create risks of fraud, hacking, unauthorized access or acquisition, and other deceptive practices. Any security incident resulting in a compromise of customer assets could result in substantial costs to us and require us to notify impacted customers, and in some cases regulators, of a possible or actual incident, expose us to regulatory enforcement actions, including substantial fines, limit our ability to provide services, subject us to litigation, significant financial losses and adversely impact our brand, reputation, business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

Certain strategies and critical aspects of our operations are reliant on technology, including hardware, software and telecommunications systems. Significant parts of the technology used in the management of each client may be provided by third parties and are therefore beyond our direct control. Forecasting, trade execution, data gathering, risk management, portfolio management, information technology infrastructure and support, compliance and accounting systems all are designed to depend upon a high degree of automation and computerization. Although we

In particular, we may rely on cloud (including private and public cloud-based) technology for certain operations, including data storage. Cloud-based technology, like any electronic data storage or processing technology, is not fail-safe. It may be subject to certain defects, failures or interruptions of service beyond our direct control. It is also possible that such technology could be compromised by a third party, including through the use of malicious software or programs, such as viruses, which may expose the Company and a client to theft (of data or other assets) and/or significant business interruption. In addition, a software provider may cease operations or be relatively thinly capitalized and our and a client’s ability to be made whole after any loss may be compromised as a result.

As digital assets have grown in both popularity and market size, the U.S. Congress and a number of U.S. federal and state agencies (including FinCEN, SEC, CFTC, FINRA, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, the Department of Justice, the Department of Homeland Security, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the IRS and state financial institution regulators) have been examining the operations of digital asset networks, digital asset users and the digital asset markets, with particular focus on the extent to which digital assets can be used to launder the proceeds of illegal activities or fund criminal or terrorist enterprises and the safety and soundness of digital asset trading platforms and other service providers that hold digital assets for users. Many of these state and federal agencies have issued consumer advisories regarding the risks posed by digital assets to investors. Ongoing and future regulatory actions with respect to digital assets generally or any digital asset that we hold or invest in may alter, perhaps to a materially adverse extent, the nature of an investment in us or our ability to continue to operate.

Law enforcement agencies have often relied on the transparency of blockchains to facilitate investigations. However, certain privacy-enhancing features have been, or are expected to be, introduced to a number of digital asset networks, and these features may provide law enforcement agencies with less visibility into transaction-level data. For example, in August 2022, OFAC banned all U.S. citizens from using Tornado Cash, a digital asset protocol designed to obfuscate blockchain transactions, by adding certain Ethereum wallet addresses associated with the protocol to its Specially Designated Nationals list. Notable industry participants and validators on the Ethereum network have reportedly complied with the sanctions and blacklisted the sanctioned addresses from interacting with their networks. In addition, Europol, the European Union’s law enforcement agency, released a report in October 2017 noting the increased use of privacy-enhancing digital assets like Zcash and Monero in criminal activity on the internet. Although no regulatory action has been taken to treat privacy-enhancing digital assets differently, this may change in the future.

Further, under guidance from the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, or FinCEN, and recommendations from the Financial Action Task Force, or FATF, the United States and several foreign jurisdictions are likely to impose the Funds Travel Rule and the Funds Transfer Rule (commonly referred to collectively as the Travel Rule) on financial service providers in the cryptoeconomy. If we were to become subject to such regulations, we may face substantial compliance costs to operationalize and comply with the Travel Rule and may be further subject to administrative sanctions for technical violations or customer attrition if the user experience suffers as a result. More recently, in December 2020, FinCEN released a proposed rule that would require us to collect personal information from the owners of self-custodied wallets that transfer cryptocurrencies to or receive cryptocurrencies from us, and report certain transactions to the federal government. There are substantial uncertainties on how these requirements would apply in practice as the acting director of FinCEN stated in May 2021 that “nothing has been decided” yet with regard to the December 2020 proposed rule. As another example, the recent extension of anti-money laundering requirements to certain cryptocurrency-related activities by the E.U. Fifth Money Laundering Directive has increased the regulatory compliance burden for our business in Europe and, as a result of the fragmented approach to the implementation of its provisions, resulted in distinct and divergent national licensing and registration regimes for us in different E.U. member states. Further E.U.-level legislation imposing additional regulatory requirements in relation to cryptocurrency-related activities is also expected in the intermediate term which, among other things, may impose new or additional regulatory requirements on both cryptocurrency service providers and issuers of certain digital assets, which may impact our operations in the E.U.

Legal or regulatory changes or interpretations of our existing and planned activities (including those of our subsidiaries or our portfolio companies), including the mere buying and selling of digital assets, could require the registration or licensing of us and/or our subsidiaries in additional, costly and constraining capacities, such as a money services business under the regulations promulgated by the FinCEN under the authority of the U.S. Bank Secrecy Act, the BitLicense scheme adopted by the New York State Department of Financial Services, or NYDFS, the DFAL in California, or pursuant to applicable laws of other jurisdictions, and would therefore require us and/or our subsidiaries to comply with applicable regulatory, licensing, examination and supervision requirements. See “Information about Galaxy—Legal Proceedings” for more information.

The effect of any future regulatory change on our business or the digital assets we hold is impossible to predict, but such change could be substantial and adverse to the utility of our products and services, our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

Various foreign jurisdictions have, and may continue to adopt laws, regulations or directives that affect a digital asset network, the digital asset markets, and their users, particularly digital asset trading platforms and service providers that fall within such jurisdictions’ regulatory scope.

A number of foreign jurisdictions have recently taken regulatory action aimed at digital asset activities. China has made transacting in cryptocurrencies illegal for Chinese citizens in mainland China, and additional restrictions may follow. China’s central bank has further restricted digital asset-related activities, stating that activity by overseas digital asset trading platforms, and services offering trading, order matching, and token issuance and derivatives, constitute illegal activity. Both China and South Korea have banned initial coin offerings entirely (although South Korean regulators have indicated they may replace the outright ban with regulations in the future) and regulators in other jurisdictions, including Canada, Singapore and Hong Kong, have opined that initial coin offerings may constitute securities offerings subject to local securities regulations. As of December 31, 2022, there are over 50 countries with absolute or implicit bans on digital assets, including approximately two-thirds of the countries in Africa. Since 2018, a large number of countries have instituted either formal or implicit bans. See “Information about Galaxy—Government Regulation.”

Foreign laws, regulations or directives, as well as the assertion of jurisdiction by foreign regulators and other government entities over digital assets and digital asset markets, may conflict with those of the United States. Such conflicts may negatively impact the acceptance of one or more digital assets by users, merchants and service providers outside the United States and may therefore impede the growth or sustainability of the digital asset economy in the European Union, China, Japan, Russia, the Bahamas and the United States and globally, or otherwise negatively affect the value of digital assets that we invest in. While the European Union’s digital asset regulations are effectively uniform, the laws and regulations in other regions are disparate, conflicting and subject to regular change and reinterpretation. The effect of any future regulatory change on our business or the digital assets that we invest in is impossible to predict, but such change could be substantial and adverse to our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

Concerns have been raised about the electricity required to secure and maintain digital asset networks. For example, as of December 31, 2023 over 515 exa-hashes per second, using a 7-day moving average, are performed in connection with mining on the Bitcoin network. Although measuring the electricity consumed by this process is difficult because these operations are performed by various machines with varying levels of efficiency, the process consumes a significant amount of energy. The operations of other digital asset networks may also consume significant amounts of energy. Further, in addition to the direct energy costs of performing calculations on any given digital asset network, there are indirect costs that impact a network’s total energy consumption, including the costs of cooling the machines that perform these calculations.

Driven by concerns around energy consumption and the impact on public utility companies, various states and cities have implemented, or are considering implementing, moratoriums on mining activity in their jurisdictions. Such actions could increasingly cause cryptocurrency networks or protocols to adopt “proof of stake” methods of validation rather than “proof of work”, which would have an adverse impact on our mining business. In addition, a significant reduction in mining activity as a result of such actions could adversely affect the security of a digital asset network by making it easier for a malicious actor or botnet to manipulate the relevant blockchain. See “—If a malicious actor or botnet obtains control of more than 50% of the processing power on a digital asset network, or otherwise obtains control over a digital asset network through its influence over core developers or otherwise, such actor or botnet could manipulate the blockchain of such digital asset to adversely affect the market price of our Class A common stock or our ability to operate.” If regulators or public utilities take action that restricts or

Our businesses involve certain activities which require regulatory licenses and qualifications such as dealing, management and advisory activities. These activities are often subject to material, costly and constraining financial regulation in jurisdictions worldwide. The process of acquiring and maintaining these licenses and qualifications will be costly and time-consuming, will occupy material management attention and is not certain to be successful, given that we may not meet the requirements for such licenses or qualifications or may fail to secure discretionary approval of relevant regulatory bodies.

Although we have the authorizations and licenses that we believe are necessary to operate our business in all material respects, with respect to certain jurisdictions, we take the view that we are not conducting regulated activities requiring specific licenses. We acknowledge that relevant regulators in such jurisdictions may take a different view, and changes in regulators’ interpretation of existing licensing statutes or regulations, or disagreement by a regulatory authority with our interpretation of such statutes or regulations, could require additional registrations or licenses, limit certain of our business activities until they are appropriately licensed, and expose us to financial penalties or other non-monetary penalties, or could damage our reputation. We consult with external counsel regarding changes in the relevant laws or regulations and refresh our assessment on a regular basis.

Galaxy Digital Partners LLC’s Continuing Membership Application (“CMA”) to the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority to act as an underwriter to registered public offerings of equity, debt or other corporate securities in the United States was approved in July 2019. However, there is no assurance this approval will be maintained or will not be subsequently limited in scope, and these events could have a significant and negative effect not only on our businesses in that market, but also on our reputation generally. Future expansions or material changes to Galaxy Digital Partners LLC’s business will require additional approvals that may be difficult to obtain. The law and regulation surrounding the operation of financial businesses with respect to digital assets is also unclear, uncertain, rapidly evolving and not assured to develop in a way that is favorable to us. There is a risk that aspects of our businesses could be outlawed in jurisdictions around the world.

The CFTC has stated and judicial decisions involving CFTC enforcement actions have confirmed that at least some digital assets, including bitcoin, fall within the definition of a “commodity” under the U.S. Commodities Exchange Act of 1936, or CEA. As a result, the CFTC has general enforcement authority to police against manipulation and fraud in at least some spot digital asset markets. From time to time, manipulation, fraud, and other forms of improper trading by market participants have resulted in, and may in the future result in, CFTC investigations, inquiries, enforcement actions, and similar actions by other regulators, government agencies, and civil litigation. Such investigations, inquiries, enforcement actions, and litigation may cause us to incur substantial costs and could result in negative publicity.

Any transaction in a commodity, including a digital asset, entered into with or offered to retail investors using leverage, margin, or other financing arrangements (a “retail leveraged commodity transaction”) is subject to CFTC regulation as a futures contract unless such transaction results in actual delivery within 28 days. The meaning of “actual delivery” has been the subject of commentary and litigation, and in March 2020, the CFTC unanimously approved final interpretive guidance addressing the “actual delivery” of a digital asset. To the extent that digital

Commodity interests, as such term is defined by the CEA and CFTC rules and regulations, are subject to more extensive supervisory oversight by the CFTC, including licensing of entities engaged in, and platforms offering, commodity interest transactions. This CFTC authority extends to digital asset futures contracts and swaps, including transactions that are based on current and future prices of digital assets and indices of digital assets. To the extent that transactions we engage in involving digital assets are deemed to fall within the definition of a commodity interest, whether as a swap or otherwise and including pursuant to subsequent rulemaking or guidance by the CFTC, we may be subject to additional regulatory requirements and oversight and could be subject to judicial or administrative sanctions if we do not or did not at a relevant time possess appropriate registrations as an exchange (for example, as a designated contract market for trading futures or options on futures, or as a swaps execution facility for trading swaps) or as a registered intermediary (for example, as a futures commission merchant or introducing broker). Such actions could result in injunctions, cease and desist orders, as well as civil monetary penalties, fines, and disgorgement, as well as reputational harm. The CFTC has previously brought enforcement actions against entities engaged in digital asset activities for failure to obtain appropriate exchange, execution facility and intermediary registrations.

If we register with the CFTC or SEC in any capacity as a result of swap or security-based swap activity, respectively, we would be subject to additional supervision and regulatory requirements, including, but not limited to, capital requirements, margin requirements, risk management and diligent supervision requirements, and business conduct standards, as applicable. We may experience a significant increase in costs to comply with these requirements, and we may incur significant fines or restrictions on our activities if we fail to comply with these requirements, to the extent they were deemed applicable to us.

Moreover, we are required to accurately report swap and security-based swap transactions to registered data repositories where we are the reporting party for such transactions. Failure to comply with applicable CFTC and/or SEC reporting rules could subject the Company to investigation and enforcement and possible monetary fines and sanctions.

Cybersecurity incidents and cyberattacks have been occurring globally at a more frequent and severe level and will likely continue to increase in frequency in the future. The digital asset industry is a particular target for cybersecurity incidents, which may occur through intentional or unintentional acts by individuals or groups having authorized or unauthorized access to our systems or our clients’ or counterparties’ information, which may include confidential information. These individuals or groups include employees, vendors and customers, as well as hackers. The information and technology systems used by us and our service providers, and other third parties, are vulnerable to damage or interruption from, among other things: hacking, ransomware, malware and other computer viruses; denial of service attacks; network failures; computer and telecommunication failures; phishing attacks; infiltration by unauthorized persons; security breaches; usage errors by their respective professionals; power outages; terrorism; and catastrophic events such as fires, tornadoes, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes.

We have experienced cybersecurity incidents in the past, and expect to experience cybersecurity incidents in the future. While we take efforts to protect our systems and data, including establishing internal processes and implementing technological measures designed to provide multiple layers of security, and contract with third-party service providers to take similar steps, we have experienced cybersecurity breaches in the past, and there can be no assurance that our safety and security measures (and those of our third-party service providers) will prevent damage to, or interruption or breach of, our information systems, data (including personal data) and operations. We have recently taken steps to expand and enhance our cybersecurity controls and practices and, as cybersecurity-related threats continue to evolve, we may be required to expend significant additional resources to continue to modify or enhance our protective measures or to investigate and remediate any information security vulnerabilities. Nevertheless, it is possible we could suffer an impact or disruption that could materially and adversely affect us. Our operational infrastructure may be breached due to the actions of outside parties, error or malfeasance of our employee, or otherwise, and, as a result, an unauthorized party may obtain access to our accounts, private keys, data, or digital assets. Additionally, outside parties may attempt to fraudulently induce our employees to disclose sensitive information in order to gain access to our infrastructure. As the techniques used to obtain unauthorized access, disable or degrade service, or sabotage systems change frequently, or may be designed to remain dormant until a predetermined event, and often are not recognized until launched against a target, we may be unable to anticipate these techniques or implement adequate preventative measures. Additionally, in the occurrence of a pandemic or similar event, there is an increased risk that we may experience cybersecurity-related incidents as a result of our employees, service providers and other third parties working remotely on less secure systems and environments. Controls employed by our information technology department and our customers and third-party service providers, including cloud vendors, could prove inadequate. If an actual or perceived breach of any of our digital asset account occurs, the market perception of our effectiveness could be harmed.

Moreover, there could be public announcements regarding any cybersecurity-related incidents and any steps we take to respond to or remediate such incidents, and if securities analysts or investors perceive these announcements to be negative, it could, among other things, have a substantial adverse effect on the price of our common stock.

It is difficult or impossible to defend against every risk being posed by changing technologies, as well as criminals’ intent to commit cybercrime, and these efforts may not be successful in anticipating, preventing, detecting or stopping attacks, or reacting in a timely manner. The increasing sophistication and resources of cybercriminals and other non-state threat actors and increased actions by nation-state actors make it difficult to keep up with new threats and could result in a breach of security. Additionally, we cannot guarantee that our insurance coverage would be sufficient to cover any such losses.

To the extent the operation of our systems relies on our third-party service providers, through either a connection to, or an integration with, third parties’ systems, the risk of cybersecurity attacks and loss, corruption, or unauthorized access to or publication of our information or the confidential information and personal data of customers and employees may increase. Third-party risks may include insufficient security measures, data location uncertainty, and the possibility of data storage in inappropriate jurisdictions where laws, security measures or other controls may be inadequate or in which there are uncertainties regarding governmental intervention and use of such data, and our ability to monitor our third-party service providers’ data security practices are limited. Although we generally have agreements relating to cybersecurity and data privacy in place with our third-party service providers, they are limited in nature and we cannot guarantee that such agreements will prevent the accidental or unauthorized access to or disclosure, loss, destruction, disablement or encryption of, use or misuse of or modification of data (including personal data) or enable us to obtain adequate or any reimbursement from our third-party service providers in the event we should suffer any such incidents. Due to applicable laws and regulations or contractual obligations, we may be held responsible for any information security failure or cybersecurity attack attributed to our vendors as they relate to the information we share with them. A vulnerability in or related to a third-party service provider’s software or systems, a failure of our third-party service providers’ safeguards, policies or procedures, or a breach of a third-party service provider’s software or systems could result in the compromise of the confidentiality, integrity or availability of our systems or the data housed in our third-party solutions.

The security of the information and technology systems used by us and our service providers may continue to be subjected to cybersecurity threats that could result in material failures or disruptions in our business. If these systems are compromised, become inoperable for extended periods of time or cease to function properly, we or a service provider may have to make a significant investment to fix or replace them. The failure of these systems or of disaster recovery plans for any reason could cause significant interruptions in operations and result in a failure to maintain the security, confidentiality or privacy of sensitive data, including personal information relating to stockholders (and the beneficial owners of stockholders). Such a failure could harm our reputation, subject us to legal claims and otherwise materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies and our value.

We obtain and process sensitive data, including personal data related to our customers and their transactions, such as their names, addresses, trading data, tax identification, and bank account information. We face risks, including to our reputation, in the handling and protection of this data, and these risks will increase as our business continues to expand. Federal, state, and international laws and regulations governing privacy, data protection, and e-commerce transactions require us to safeguard our customers’, employees’, and service providers’ personal data.

We have administrative, technical, and physical security measures and controls in place and maintain a robust information security program. However, our security measures may be inadequate or breached as a result of third-party action, employee or service provider error, malfeasance, malware, phishing, hacking attacks, system error, trickery, advances in computer capabilities, new discoveries in the field of cryptography, inadequate facility security or otherwise, and, as a result, someone may be able to obtain unauthorized access to sensitive information, including personal data, on our systems. Additionally, privacy and data protection laws are evolving, and it is possible that these laws may be interpreted and applied in a manner that is inconsistent with our data handling safeguards and

To the extent that the measures we or our third-party business partners have taken prove to be insufficient or inadequate, we may become subject to litigation, breach notification obligations, or regulatory or administrative sanctions, which could result in significant fines, penalties, damages, harm to our reputation, or loss of customers. If our own confidential business information or sensitive customer information were improperly disclosed, our business could be adversely affected. Additionally, a party who circumvents our security measures could, among other effects, appropriate customer information or other proprietary data, cause interruptions in our operations, or expose customers to hacks, viruses, and other disruptions.

Depending on the nature of the information compromised, in the event of a data breach or other unauthorized access to our customer data, we may also have obligations to notify customers and regulators about the incident, and we may need to provide some form of remedy, such as a subscription to credit monitoring services, pay significant fines to one or more regulators, or pay compensation in connection with a class-action settlement (including under the new private right of action under the California Consumer Privacy Act of 2018 (“CCPA”), which is expected to increase security breach litigation). Such breach notification laws continue to evolve and may be inconsistent from one jurisdiction to another. Complying with these obligations could cause us to incur substantial costs and could increase negative publicity surrounding any incident that compromises customer data. Additionally, the financial exposure from the events referenced above could either not be insured against or not be fully covered through any insurance that we may maintain, and there can be no assurance that the limitations of liability in any of our contracts would be enforceable or adequate or would otherwise protect us from liabilities or damages as a result of the events referenced above. Any of the foregoing could have an adverse effect on our business, reputation, operating results, and financial condition.

Furthermore, we may be required to disclose personal data pursuant to demands from individuals, regulators, government agencies, and law enforcement agencies in various jurisdictions with conflicting privacy and security laws, which could result in a breach of privacy and data protection policies, notices, laws, rules, court orders, and regulations. Additionally, changes in the laws and regulations that govern our collection, use, and disclosure of customer data could impose additional requirements with respect to the retention and security of customer data, could limit our marketing activities, and have an adverse effect on our business, operating results, and financial condition.

We and our third-party service providers are subject to a variety of federal, state, local, and non-U.S. laws, directives, rules, policies, industry standards and regulations, as well as contractual obligations, relating to privacy and the collection, protection, use, retention, security, disclosure, transfer and other processing of personal data and other data, including Section 5(c) of the Federal Trade Commission Act, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the CCPA. The regulatory framework for data privacy and security worldwide is continuously evolving and developing and, as a result, interpretation and implementation standards and enforcement practices are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. New laws, amendments to or reinterpretations of existing laws, regulations, standards and other obligations may require us to incur additional costs and restrict our business operations, and may require us to change how we use, collect, store, transfer or otherwise process certain types of personal data and to implement new processes to comply with those laws and our customers’ exercise of their rights thereunder.

In the United States, federal law restricts certain collection, processing, storage, use and disclosure of personal data, requires notice to individuals of privacy practices and provides individuals with certain rights to prevent the use and disclosure of certain non-public or otherwise legally protected information. These rules also impose requirements for the safeguarding and proper destruction of personal data through the issuance of data security

Numerous states have enacted or are in the process of enacting state-level data privacy laws and regulations governing the collection, use, and other processing of state residents’ personal data. For example, the CCPA, which took effect on January 1, 2020, established a new privacy framework for covered businesses such as ours, and may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies and incur compliance related costs and expenses. The CCPA provides new and enhanced data privacy rights to California residents, such as affording California residents the right to access and delete their information and to opt out of certain sharing and sales of personal information. The law also prohibits covered businesses from discriminating against California residents (for example, charging more for services) for exercising any of their CCPA rights. The CCPA imposes severe civil penalties and statutory damages as well as a private right of action for certain data breaches that result in the loss of personal information. This private right of action is expected to increase the likelihood of, and risks associated with, data breach litigation. However, it remains unclear how various provisions of the CCPA will be interpreted and enforced. In November 2020, California voters passed the California Privacy Rights Act of 2020 (“CPRA”). Effective in most material respects starting on January 1, 2023, the CPRA will impose additional obligations on companies covered by the legislation and will significantly modify the CCPA, including by expanding the CCPA with additional data privacy compliance requirements that may impact our business. The CPRA also establishes a regulatory agency dedicated to enforcing the CCPA and the CPRA. Additionally, on March 2, 2021, the Virginia Consumer Data Protection Act (“CDPA”) was signed into law. The CDPA becomes effective beginning January 1, 2023, and contains provisions that require businesses to conduct data protection assessments in certain circumstances, and that require opt-in consent from consumers to process certain sensitive personal information. The effects of the CPRA, the CCPA, the CDPA, other similar state or federal laws and other future changes in laws or regulations relating to privacy, data protection and information security, particularly any new or modified laws or regulations that require enhanced protection of certain types of data or new obligations with regard to data retention, transfer or disclosure, are significant and may require us to modify our data processing practices and policies and could greatly increase the cost of providing our offerings, require significant changes to our operations or even prevent us from providing certain offerings in jurisdictions in which we currently operate and in which we may operate in the future or incur potential liability in an effort to comply with such legislation.

The CPRA, CCPA and CDPA may lead other states to pass comparable legislation, with potentially greater penalties and more rigorous compliance requirements relevant to our business. For example, many state legislatures have adopted legislation that regulates how businesses operate online, including measures relating to privacy, data security, data breaches and the protection of sensitive and personal information. Laws in all 50 states require businesses to provide notice to customers whose personally identifiable information has been disclosed as a result of a data breach. The laws are not consistent, as certain state laws may be more stringent or broader in scope, or offer greater individual rights, with respect to sensitive and personal information than federal, international or other state laws, and such laws may differ from each other, which may complicate compliance efforts. Compliance in the event of a widespread data breach may be costly.

The NYDFS also issued Cybersecurity Requirements for Financial Services Companies, which took effect in 2017, and which require banks, insurance companies and other financial services institutions regulated by the NYDFS, to establish and maintain a cybersecurity program designed to protect consumers and ensure the safety and soundness of New York State’s financial services industry. The cybersecurity regulation adds specific requirements for these institutions’ cybersecurity compliance programs and imposes an obligation to conduct ongoing, comprehensive risk assessments. Further, on an annual basis, each institution is required to submit a certification of

We make public statements about our use, collection, disclosure and other processing of personal data through our privacy policies, information provided on our website and press statements. Although we endeavor to comply with our public statements and documentation, we may at times fail to do so or be alleged to have failed to do so. The publication of our privacy policies and other statements that provide promises and assurances about data privacy and security can subject us to potential government or legal action if they are found to be deceptive, unfair or misrepresentative of our actual practices. Any failure or perceived failure by us or our third-party service providers to comply with our posted privacy policies or with any applicable federal, state or similar foreign laws, rules, regulations, industry standards, policies, certifications or orders relating to data privacy and security, or any compromise of security that results in theft, unauthorized access, acquisition, use, disclosure, or misappropriation of personal data or other customer data, could result in significant awards, fines, civil and/or criminal penalties or judgments, proceedings or litigation by governmental agencies or customers, including class action privacy litigation in certain jurisdictions and negative publicity and reputational harm, one or all of which could have an adverse effect on our reputation, business, financial condition and results of operations. All of these evolving compliance and operational requirements impose significant costs, such as costs related to organizational changes, implementing additional protection technologies, training employees and engaging consultants, which are likely to increase over time. In addition, such requirements may require us to modify or restrict our data processing practices and policies, distract management or divert resources from other initiatives and projects, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

International presence in the UK and the EU, as well as the fact that some of our customers are residents of the UK and the EU, subjects us or may subject us to the EU General Data Protection Regulation (“GDPR”), which became effective in May 2018, supplemented by national laws and further implemented through binding guidance from the European Data Protection Board, which regulates the collection, control, sharing, disclosure, use and other processing of personal data and imposes stringent data protection requirements with significant penalties, and the risk of civil litigation, for non-compliance. As described further below, following Brexit, we also are subject to the United Kingdom General Data Protection Regulation (“U.K. GDPR”) (i.e., a version of the GDPR as implemented into UK law). Among other requirements, the GDPR regulates transfers of personal data subject to the GDPR to third countries that have not been found to provide adequate protection to such personal data, including the United States.

One of the primary safeguards that allowed U.S. companies to import personal data from Europe had been certification to the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield and Swiss U.S. Privacy Shield frameworks administered by the U.S. Department of Commerce. However, the Court of Justice of the EU (“CJEU”), invalidated the EU U.S. Privacy Shield, in a case known as “Schrems II.” Following this decision, the United Kingdom government has similarly invalidated use of the EU U.S. Privacy Shield as a mechanism for lawful personal data transfers from the United Kingdom to the United States under the U.K. GDPR and the Swiss Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner announced that the Swiss-U.S. Privacy Shield does not provide adequate safeguards for the purposes of personal data transfers from Switzerland to the United States. The CJEU’s decision in Schrems II also raised questions about whether one of the primary alternatives to the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield, namely, the European Commission’s Standard Contractual Clauses, can lawfully be used for personal data transfers from Europe to the United States or other third countries that are not the subject of an adequacy decision of the European Commission. At present, there are few, if any, viable alternatives to the Standard Contractual Clauses. As such, if we are unable to implement a valid mechanism for personal data transfers from Europe, we will face increased exposure to regulatory actions, substantial fines and injunctions against processing personal data from Europe. Inability to export personal data may also: restrict our activities outside Europe; limit our ability to collaborate with partners as well as other service providers, contractors and other companies outside of Europe; and/or require us to increase our processing capabilities within Europe at significant expense or otherwise cause us to change the geographical location or segregation of our relevant systems and operations—any or all of which could adversely affect our operations or financial results. Additionally, other countries outside of Europe have enacted or are considering enacting similar

Further, the UK’s vote in favor of exiting the EU, often referred to as Brexit, and ongoing developments in the UK have created uncertainty with regard to data protection regulation in the UK. As of January 1, 2021, following the expiry of transitional arrangements agreed to between the UK and EU, data processing in the UK is governed by a UK version of the GDPR (combining the GDPR and the United Kingdom’s Data Protection Act 2018), exposing us to two parallel regimes, each of which authorizes similar fines and other potentially divergent enforcement actions for certain violations. With respect to transfers of personal data from the EEA to the UK, the European Commission has published its draft adequacy decision, finding that the UK ensures an adequate level of data protection. Before the decision is formally adopted, the European Data Protection Board will need to issue a nonbinding opinion on the draft and each member state must approve the decision. There is currently uncertainty as to how long this process will take. In the interim, transfers of personal data from the EEA to the UK will not be considered transfers to a third country. Following the adoption of the adequacy decision, there will be increasing scope for divergence in application, interpretation and enforcement of the data protection law as between the UK and EEA. Other countries have also passed or are considering passing laws requiring local data residency or restricting the international transfer of data.

Other countries have also passed or are considering passing laws requiring local data residency or restricting the international transfer of data. These changes may lead to additional costs and increase our overall risk exposure. Any inability to adequately address data privacy or security-related concerns, even if unfounded, or to comply with applicable laws, regulations, standards and other obligations relating to data privacy and security, could result in litigation, breach notification obligations, regulatory or administrative sanctions, additional cost and liability to us, harm to our reputation and brand, damage to our relationships with customers and have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We rely heavily on the use of technology, proprietary and non-proprietary software, data and intellectual property, including that of third parties in the both the digital asset sector and otherwise. The reliance on this technology and data is subject to a number of important risks. Much of the existing technology for the financial services businesses was not built to service digital assets, which require a unique set of considerations. We are working with numerous service providers to help develop technology to service the industry. If these platforms and technology solutions do not work as planned, or do not meet the level of quality we require, it may make transacting business less efficient, more expensive and potentially prone to errors.

The operation of any element of the digital assets network or any other electronic platform may be severely and adversely affected by the malfunction of its technology and the technology of third parties. For example, an unforeseen software or hardware malfunction could occur as a result of a virus or other outside force, or as result of a design flaw in the design and operation of the network or platform. Furthermore, if our software, hardware, data or

Third parties with which we do business or that facilitate our business activities, including digital asset trading platforms, financial intermediaries or vendors that provide services or security solutions for our operations, could also expose us to technology risk, including from breakdowns or failures of their own systems or capacity constraints or other services that impair our ability to process transactions and communicate with customers and counterparties. In addition, we are exposed to the risk that a technology disruption or other information security event at a vendor to our third-party service providers could impede their ability to provide products or services to us. We may not be able to effectively monitor or mitigate operational risks relating to the use of vendors by third-party service providers.

Holders of digital assets must adapt to technological change to secure and safeguard accounts. As technological change occurs, the security threats to our digital asset holdings and our custody technology will likely adapt, and previously unknown threats may emerge. Furthermore, we may become a greater target of security threats as our size and reputation increases. If we are unable to identify and mitigate or stop new security threats, our assets may be subject to theft, loss, destruction or other attack, which could result in a loss of our assets or materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us. Similarly, our custody technology business may become a greater target of security threats as the size of custodied assets increases. If we are unable to identify and mitigate or stop new security threats to our custody technology, custodied assets may be subject to theft, loss, destruction or other attack, which could materially and adversely affect the value of any investment in us.

Our success and ability to compete depend in part upon our ability to obtain, maintain, protect, defend and enforce our intellectual property and other proprietary rights and technology. Unauthorized use of our intellectual property or a violation of our intellectual property and other proprietary rights by third parties may damage our brand and our reputation. We rely on a combination of trademark, patent, copyright, and trade secret laws in the United States and internationally, our terms and conditions, other contractual provisions and technological measures to protect our intellectual property rights from infringement, misappropriation or other violation to maintain our brand and competitive position. Various factors outside our control pose a threat to our intellectual property rights, as well as to our products, services and technologies.

The steps we take to protect our intellectual property rights may not be sufficient to effectively prevent third parties from infringing, misappropriating, diluting or otherwise violating our intellectual property rights or to prevent unauthorized disclosure or unauthorized use of our trade secrets or other confidential information. We make business decisions about when to seek patent protection for a particular technology and when to rely upon trade secret protection, and the approach we select may ultimately prove to be inadequate. There can be no assurance our intellectual property rights will be sufficient to protect against unauthorized parties offering products or services that are substantially similar to ours and compete with our business or attempting to copy aspects of our technology and use information that we consider proprietary.

In addition to registered intellectual property rights, we rely on non-registered proprietary information and technology, such as trade secrets, confidential information and know-how. We attempt to protect our intellectual property, technology, and confidential information by requiring our employees, contractors, consultants, corporate collaborators, advisors and other third parties who develop intellectual property on our behalf to enter into confidentiality and invention assignment agreements, and third parties we share information with to enter into nondisclosure and confidentiality agreements. We cannot guarantee that we have entered into such agreements with each party who has developed intellectual property on our behalf and each party that has or may have had access to our confidential information, know-how and trade secrets. These agreements may be insufficient or breached, or

The loss of trade secret protection could make it easier for third parties to compete with our products and services by copying functionality. Additionally, individuals not subject to invention assignment agreements may make adverse ownership claims to our current and future intellectual property, and, to the extent that our employees, independent contractors or other third parties with whom we do business use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions.

We will not be able to protect our intellectual property rights if we do not detect unauthorized use of our intellectual property rights. We also may fail to maintain or be unable to obtain adequate protections for certain of our intellectual property rights in the United States and certain non-U.S. countries, and our intellectual property rights may not receive the same degree of protection in non-U.S. countries as they would in the United States because of the differences in non-U.S. patent, trademark, copyright, and other laws concerning intellectual property and proprietary rights. Any of our intellectual property rights may be successfully challenged, opposed, diluted, misappropriated or circumvented by others or invalidated, narrowed in scope or held unenforceable through administrative process or litigation in the United States or in non-U.S. jurisdictions. Furthermore, legal standards relating to the validity, enforceability and scope of protection of intellectual property rights are uncertain and any changes in, or unexpected interpretations of, intellectual property laws may compromise our ability to enforce our trade secrets and intellectual property rights.

In order to protect our intellectual property and other proprietary rights, we may be required to expend significant resources to apply for, maintain, monitor and protect these rights. Litigation brought to protect and enforce our intellectual property rights could be costly, time-consuming and distracting to management and could result in the impairment or loss of portions of our intellectual property. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation. Our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights may be met with defenses, counterclaims and countersuits attacking the validity and enforceability of our intellectual property rights. Accordingly, we may not be able to prevent third parties from infringing upon or misappropriating our intellectual property. An adverse outcome in such litigation or proceedings may therefore expose us to a loss of our competitive position, expose us to significant liabilities or require us to seek licenses that may not be available on commercially acceptable terms, if at all. Our failure to secure, protect and enforce our intellectual property rights could seriously damage our brand and have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our commercial success depends, in part, on our ability to develop and commercialize our services and use our internally developed technology without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the intellectual property or proprietary rights of third parties. In recent years, there has been considerable patent, copyright, trademark, domain name, trade secret and other intellectual property development activity in the cryptoeconomy, as well as litigation, based on allegations of infringement or other violations of intellectual property, including by large financial institutions. We may become subject to intellectual property disputes, whether or not such allegations have merit. Intellectual property disputes can be costly to defend and may cause our business, operating results and

With respect to any third-party claims regarding intellectual property rights, we may have to seek a license to continue operations found to be in violation of such rights. If we require a third-party license, it may not be available on commercially reasonable terms or at all, and we may have to pay substantial royalties, upfront fees or grant cross-licenses to our intellectual property rights. We may also have to redesign our technology or services so they do not infringe such third-party intellectual property rights, which may not be possible or may require substantial expenditures of money and time, during which our technology may not be available for commercialization or use. Even if we are party to an agreement pursuant to which a third party must indemnify us against such costs, the indemnifying party may be unable or otherwise unwilling to uphold its contractual obligations. If we cannot or do not obtain relevant third-party licenses, or cannot obtain such licenses on commercially reasonable terms, obtain similar technology from another source, or design new technology that is not infringing, our revenue and earnings could be adversely impacted.

We also license software from third-party vendors. Third parties may claim that our use of such licensed software infringes upon their intellectual property rights. Although we seek to secure indemnification protection from our software vendors to protect us against potential third-party infringement claims in connection with our use of such license software, not all of our vendors agree to provide us with sufficient indemnification protection, and in the instances where we do secure indemnification protection from our vendors, it is possible such vendors may not honor such indemnification obligations.

Third parties may assert intellectual property claims relating to portfolio companies or digital asset networks and their source code. Regardless of the merit of any claim, any threatened action that reduces confidence in portfolio companies or digital asset networks could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us. Additionally, a meritorious intellectual property claim could lead to a loss of value in the impacted portfolio company or prevent us or other end users from accessing a specific blockchain network or holding or transferring their digital assets, which could force the liquidation of certain digital assets in which we have an interest or cause the value of such digital assets to decline significantly. As a result, an intellectual property claim against a portfolio company or large participants on certain blockchain networks could materially and adversely affect our investment and trading strategies, the value of our assets and the value of any investment in us.

Even if resolved in our favor, litigation or other legal proceedings relating to intellectual property may cause us to incur significant expenses, and could distract our technical and management personnel from their normal responsibilities. In addition, there could be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments, and if securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, such announcements could have a material adverse effect on the price of our Class A common stock. Moreover, any

Our business is highly dependent on maintaining effective information technology systems as well as the integrity and timeliness of the data we use to serve our customers, support our partners and operate our business. It is possible that hardware failures or errors in our systems could result in data loss or corruption, or cause the information that we collect to be incomplete, or contain inaccuracies that our customers regard as significant. Because of the large amount of data that we collect and manage, if our data were found to be inaccurate or unreliable, or became inaccessible, whether due to failures, errors, or other reasons, or if we, or any of our third-party service providers, especially our third-party dialing and routing software systems, were to fail to effectively maintain such information systems and data integrity, we could experience operational disruptions that may impact our customers, individuals and partner teams, and hinder our ability to provide services, establish appropriate pricing for services, retain and attract customers, establish reserves, report financial results timely and accurately and maintain regulatory compliance, among other things.

Our information technology strategy and execution are critical to our continued success. We must continue to invest in long-term solutions that will enable us to anticipate customer needs and expectations, enhance our customer experience, act as a differentiator in the market, comply with applicable laws, and protect against cybersecurity risks and threats. Our success is dependent, in large part, on maintaining the effectiveness of existing technology systems and continuing to deliver and enhance technology systems that support our business processes in a cost-efficient and resource-efficient manner and enable us to analyze and manage data in a comprehensive manner. Increasing and shifting regulatory and legislative requirements are likely to place additional demands on our information technology infrastructure that could have a direct impact on resources available for other projects tied to our strategic initiatives.

Also, in the event of damage or interruption, our insurance policies may not adequately compensate us for any losses that we may incur. System failures or outages, including any potential disruptions due to significantly increased global demand on certain cloud-based systems during a pandemic, could compromise our ability to perform these functions in a timely manner, which could harm our ability to conduct business or delay our financial reporting. Such failures could adversely affect our operating results and financial condition. In addition, certain of our third-party service providers are required to notify us if they experience a security breach or unauthorized disclosure of certain personal information, or, in some cases, confidential data or information of ours or our billers, partners or consumers, and their failure to timely notify us of such a breach or disclosure may cause us to incur significant costs or otherwise harm our business. Additionally, we may make critical transactions on behalf of our customers, and any errors, defects or other infrastructure problems could result in damage to such consumers. These consumers could seek significant compensation from us for their losses and our insurance policies may be insufficient to cover a claim. Even if unsuccessful, this type of claim may be time-consuming and costly for us to defend.

Furthermore, prolonged interruption in the availability, or reduction in the speed or other functionality, of our systems, products or services could materially harm our reputation and business. Frequent or persistent interruptions in accessing our systems and services could cause consumers to believe that our systems and services are unreliable, leading them to switch to our competitors or to avoid our systems and services, and could permanently harm our reputation and business.

Connectivity and interoperability among technologies is becoming increasingly important. As a result, we must also develop new systems to meet current market standards and keep pace with continuing changes in information processing technology, evolving industry and regulatory standards and customer needs. Failure to do so may present compliance challenges and impede our ability to deliver services in a competitive manner. Further, system

We rely heavily on the communications and information systems of third parties to conduct our business. For instance, we rely on computing infrastructure operated by Amazon Web Services (“AWS”) and Microsoft Azure (“Azure”) to host or operate some or all of certain key products or functions of our business. Our customers need to be able to access our systems at any time, without interruption or degradation of performance. Our technological infrastructure depends, in part, on the virtual cloud infrastructure hosted in AWS and Azure. Although we have disaster recovery plans that utilize multiple AWS and Azure locations, any incident affecting their infrastructure could adversely affect our cloud-native platform. A prolonged AWS or Azure service disruption affecting our cloud-native platform would adversely impact our ability to service our customers and could damage our reputation with current and potential customers, expose us to liability, result in substantial costs for remediation, could cause us to lose customers, or otherwise harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. We may also incur significant costs for using alternative hosting sources or taking other actions in preparation for, or in reaction to, events that damage the AWS or Azure services we use. Additionally, in the event that our AWS or Azure service agreements are terminated, or there is a lapse of service, elimination of AWS or Azure services or features that we utilize, or damage to such facilities, we could experience interruptions in access to our systems as well as significant delays and additional expenses in arranging for or creating new facilities or re-architecting our systems for deployment on a different cloud infrastructure service provider, which would adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

As expectations regarding operational and information security practices have increased, our operating systems and infrastructure, and those of our third-party service providers, must continue to be safeguarded and monitored for potential failures, disruptions, breakdowns, and attacks. Our data processing systems, or other operating systems and facilities, and those of our third-party service providers, may stop operating properly or become disabled or damaged as a result of a number of factors, including events that are wholly or partially beyond our and our third-party service providers’ control. For example, there could be electrical or telecommunication outages, natural disasters such as earthquakes, tornadoes, or hurricanes; disease pandemics and related government orders; events arising from local or larger scale political or social matters, including terrorist acts; cyberattacks and other data security incidents, including ransomware, malware, phishing, social engineering, including some of the foregoing that target the cryptoeconomy in particular. These incidents can range from individual attempts to gain unauthorized access to information technology systems to more sophisticated security threats involving cybercriminals, hacktivists, cyberterrorists, nation-state actors, or the targeting of commercial financial accounts. These events can also result from internal compromises, such as human error or malicious internal actors, of our workforce or our vendors’ personnel.

While we have business continuity, disaster recovery and other policies and procedures designed to prevent or limit the effect of the failure, interruption or security breach of our information systems, there can be no assurance that any such failures, interruptions or security breaches will not occur or, if they do occur, that they will be adequately addressed. Furthermore, if such failures, interruptions or security breaches are not detected immediately, their effect could be compounded. Our risk and exposure to these matters remains heightened because of the evolving nature of these threats and our use of third-party service providers with access to our systems and data. As a result, cybersecurity and the continued development and enhancement of our controls, processes, and practices designed to protect our systems, computers, software, data, and networks from attack, damage or unauthorized access remain a focus for us. Disruptions or failures in the physical infrastructure or operating systems that support our businesses and customers, or cyberattacks or security breaches of our networks, systems or devices, or those that

We use open source software in our products and services and anticipate using open source software in the future. Some open source software licenses require those who distribute open source software as part of their own software product to publicly disclose all or part of the source code to such software product or to make available any derivative works of the open source code on unfavorable terms or at no cost, and we may be subject to such terms. The terms of many open source licenses to which we are subject have not been interpreted by U.S. or foreign courts, and there is a risk that open source software licenses could be construed in a manner that imposes unanticipated conditions or restrictions on our ability to provide or distribute our products or services. We could face claims from third parties claiming ownership of, or demanding release of, the open source software or derivative works that we developed using such software, which could include our proprietary source code, or otherwise seeking to enforce the terms of the applicable open source license. These claims could result in litigation and could require us to make our software source code freely available, purchase a costly license or cease offering the implicated products or services unless and until we can reengineer them to avoid infringement, which may be a costly and time-consuming process. While we monitor our use of open source software and try to ensure that none is used in a manner that would require us to disclose our proprietary source code or that would otherwise breach the terms of an open source agreement, such use could inadvertently occur, or could be claimed to have occurred, in part because open source license terms are often ambiguous. Any actual or claimed requirement to disclose our proprietary source code or pay damages for breach of contract could harm our business and could help third parties, including our competitors, develop products and services that are similar to or better than ours.

Additionally, the use of certain open source software can lead to greater risks than use of third-party commercial software, as open source licensors generally do not provide warranties or controls on the origin of software. There is typically no support available for open source software, and we cannot ensure that the authors of such open source software will implement or push updates to address security risks or will not abandon further development and maintenance. Many of the risks associated with the use of open source software, such as the lack of warranties or assurances of title or performance, cannot be eliminated, and could, if not properly addressed, negatively affect our business. Any of these risks could be difficult to eliminate or manage and, if not addressed, could have an adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our information technology systems facilitate our ability to conduct our business. While we have disaster recovery systems and business continuity plans in place, any disruptions in our, or our service providers, disaster recovery systems or the failure of these systems to operate as expected could, depending on the magnitude of the problem, adversely affect our operating results by limiting our capacity to effectively conduct our operations. Despite our implementation of a variety of security measures, our information technology systems could be subject to physical or electronic compromises and similar disruptions from unauthorized tampering, or to weather-related disruptions where our systems are hosted. In addition, in the event that a significant number of our personnel were unavailable in the event of a disaster or we failed to recover office facilities or systems, our ability to effectively conduct business could be adversely affected. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We license certain intellectual property, including technologies, data, content and software from third parties, that is important to our business, and in the future we may enter into additional agreements that provide us with

In the future, we may identify additional third-party intellectual property we may need to license in order to engage in our business. However, such licenses may not be available on acceptable terms or at all. The licensing or acquisition of third-party intellectual property rights is a competitive area, and several more-established companies may pursue strategies to license or acquire third-party intellectual property rights that we may consider attractive or necessary. In addition, companies that perceive us to be a competitor may be unwilling to assign or license rights to us. Even if such licenses are available, we may be required to pay the licensor substantial royalties based on sales of our products and services. Such royalties are a component of the cost of our products or services and may affect the margins on our products and services. In addition, such licenses may be nonexclusive, which could give our competitors access to the same intellectual property licensed to us. Any of the foregoing could have a material adverse effect on our competitive position, business, financial condition and results of operations.

Many of our employees, consultants and advisors, or individuals that may in the future serve as our employees, consultants and advisors, are currently or were previously employed at companies including our competitors or potential competitors. Although we try to ensure that our employees, consultants, independent contractors and advisors do not use the confidential or proprietary information, trade secrets or know-how of others in their work for us, we may be subject to claims that we have, inadvertently or otherwise, used or disclosed confidential or proprietary information, trade secrets or know-how of these third parties, or that our employees, consultants or, independent contractors or advisors have, inadvertently or otherwise, used or disclosed confidential information, trade secrets or know-how of such individual’s current or former employer. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. Even if we are successful in defending against these claims, and whether or not such claims have merit, litigation could result in substantial cost and be a distraction to our management and employees. We cannot predict whether we would prevail in any such actions. Moreover, intellectual property litigation, regardless of its outcome, may cause negative publicity and could prohibit us from marketing or otherwise commercializing our offerings and technology. Claims that we, our employees, consultants or advisors have misappropriated the confidential or proprietary information, trade secrets or know-how of third parties could therefore have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may not be able to protect our trade secrets, know-how and other internally developed information adequately. Although we use reasonable efforts to protect this internally developed information and technology, our employees, consultants and other parties (including independent contractors and companies with whom we conduct business) may unintentionally or willfully disclose our information or technology to competitors. Enforcing a claim that a third party illegally disclosed or obtained and is using any of our internally developed information or technology is difficult, expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. We rely, in part, on nondisclosure, confidentiality and assignment-of-invention agreements with our employees, independent contractors, consultants and companies with whom we conduct business to protect our trade secrets, know-how and other intellectual property rights and internally developed information. These agreements may not be self-executing,

We are a holding company and, upon completion of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, our principal asset will be our direct ownership of LP Units. See “Proposed Organizational Structure.” Beyond interest generated on the promissory note issued by GDH LP to the Company in connection with the GDH LPA, we have no independent means of generating revenue. Upon the consummation of the Reorganization, GDH LP will be treated as a partnership for U.S. federal income tax purposes and, as such, will not be subject to U.S. federal income tax. Instead, the taxable income of GDH LP will be allocated to holders of LP Units, including us. Accordingly, we will incur U.S. federal income taxes on our allocable share of any net taxable income of GDH LP. We will also incur expenses related to our operations, and will have obligations to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement. As the sole general partner of GDH LP, we intend to cause GDH LP to make distributions to the holders of LP Units in amounts sufficient to (i) cover all applicable taxes payable by us and the other holders of LP Units, (ii) allow us to make any payments required under the Tax Receivable Agreement, which we intend to amend and restate in connection with the Reorganization, (iii) fund dividends to our stockholders in accordance with our dividend policy, to the extent that our board of directors declares such dividends and (iv) pay our expenses.

Deterioration in the financial conditions, earnings or cash flow of GDH LP and its subsidiaries for any reason could limit or impair their ability to pay such distributions. Additionally, to the extent that we need funds and GDH LP is restricted from making such distributions to us under applicable law or regulation, as a result of covenants in its debt agreements or otherwise, we may not be able to obtain such funds on terms acceptable to us, or at all, and, as a result, could suffer a material adverse effect on our liquidity and financial condition.

Accordingly, our Founder has the ability to substantially control Galaxy, including through the election of members of the Board of Managers. Where certain transactions require the approval of stockholders, though our Founder may not be able to unilaterally authorize the transaction he may be able to unilaterally block it. This concentration of ownership and voting power may also delay, defer or prevent an acquisition by a third party or other change of control of Galaxy and may make some transactions more difficult or impossible without the support of our Founder even if they are in the best interests of the stockholders. This could have the effect of discouraging transactions in which you as a holder of shares of our Class A common stock might otherwise receive a premium for your shares over then-current market price. Collectively, these considerations may have a negative effect on the price of our Class A common stock.

Our Founder’s interests may not be fully aligned with those of other holders of our Class A common stock which, given our Founder’s power and influence, could lead to actions that are not in the best interests of stockholders. For example, our Founder may have a different tax position from Pubco and holders of Pubco’s

Under the Amended LP Agreement (as defined herein), GDH LP will generally be required from time to time to make pro rata distributions in cash to Pubco and the other holders of LP Units at certain assumed tax rates in amounts that are intended to be sufficient to cover the U.S. federal income taxes on our and the other LP Unit holders’ respective allocable shares of the taxable income of GDH LP. The distributions GDH LP may be required to make could be substantial, including as a result of the future recognition of capital gains associated with contributions by GDH LP to qualified opportunity zones. As a result of (i) potential differences in the amount of net taxable income allocable to us and the other LP Unit holders, (ii) the lower income tax rate applicable to corporations than individuals and (iii) the use of an assumed tax rate (based on the income tax rate applicable to individuals, or, if higher, corporations) in calculating GDH LP’s distribution obligations, we may receive tax distributions significantly in excess of our tax liabilities and obligations to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement. Our board of directors will determine the appropriate uses for any excess cash so accumulated, which may include, among other uses, dividends, repurchases of our Class A common stock, or purchases of additional LP Units (either of which may be accompanied by a pro rata adjustment to the number of LP Units held by the other LP Unit holders in order to preserve the intended one-to-one correspondence between LP Units held by us and outstanding shares of our Class A common stock), the payment of obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement and the payment of other expenses. We will have no obligation to distribute such cash (or other available cash other than any declared dividend) to our stockholders. No adjustments to the redemption or exchange ratio of LP Units for shares of Class A common stock will be made as a result of either (i) any cash distribution by us or (ii) any cash that we retain and do not distribute to our stockholders. To the extent that we do not distribute such excess cash as dividends on our Class A common stock and instead, for example, hold such cash balances or lend them to GDH LP, holders of LP Units would benefit from any value attributable to such cash balances as a result of their ownership of Class A common stock following a redemption or exchange of their LP Units. See “Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions—Amended and restated GDH LP agreement.”

The market price and trading volume of GDHL’s ordinary shares has historically been volatile, and after giving effect to the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, the market price and market price of our Class A common stock will likely continue to be subject to significant fluctuations in response to, among other factors: developments in the digital assets industry; market fluctuations in digital assets generally or changes in the underlying values and trading volumes of the digital assets that we hold or trade; our financial performance and prospects or changes in the financial performance and prospects of companies engaged in businesses that are similar to our businesses; changes in laws or regulations, including tax laws, or new interpretations or applications of laws and regulations, that are applicable to our businesses; sales of our Class A common stock by our existing equityholders, including Class A common stock issued upon redemption or exchange of any LP Units; general economic trends and other external factors, including those resulting from war, incidents of terrorism or responses to such events; speculation in the press or investment community regarding our or our business or investments, or factors or events that may directly or indirectly affect our businesses or investments; and further issuances of our Class A common stock or LP Units.

The price of our Class A common stock also could be subject to wide fluctuations in response to the risk factors described in this prospectus and others beyond our control, including:

Moreover, upon the listing of our Class A common stock on Nasdaq (which we intend to apply for, but is not a condition to the consummation of any of the Proposed Transactions), the market price and trading volume of our Class A common stock may be subject to even greater volatility. Historically, GDHL has been limited in its ability to offer its ordinary shares to U.S. investors or to avail itself of the U.S. capital markets; as such, a listing on Nasdaq, if consummated, could enable individual investors, retail investors and others who may have not previously been permitted to trade in GDHL’s ordinary shares to trade in our Class A common stock. These factors could result in a public price of our Class A common stock that is higher than other investors (such as institutional investors) are willing to pay, which could cause volatility in the market price of our Class A common stock and an unsustainable market price if the price of our Class A common stock significantly rises upon listing and institutional investors believe our Class A common stock is worth less than retail investors, in which case the price of our Class A common stock may decline over time. Further, if the public price of our Class A common stock is above the level that investors determine is reasonable for our Class A common stock, some investors may attempt to short our Class A common stock, which would create additional downward pressure on the public price of our Class A common stock. Moreover, to the extent that there is a lack of consumer awareness among retail investors, or there is insufficient demand for our Class A common stock among U.S. investors more generally, such events, could reduce the market price of our Class A common stock and cause volatility in the market price of our Class A common stock.

In recent years, stock markets have experienced significant price and volume fluctuations, which have had a significant impact on the market price of securities issued by many companies, irrespective of the operating performance of the affected companies. Moreover, the prices of the digital assets that we hold or trade have historically been, and will likely continue to be, highly volatile. Accordingly, the price of our Class A common stock could fluctuate based upon factors that have little or nothing to do with us or our operating performance, which could materially and adversely affect the value of any investment in our Class A common stock.

Additionally, although an active market for GDHL’s ordinary shares exists on the TSX, and a market for GDHL’s ordinary shares has developed on the OTC Pink markets, Pubco’s Class A common stock has not been

Apart from the numerous material legal and regulatory risks to us, we could be adversely affected by changes in law, regulation, interpretation of such law or regulation or regulator or exchange discretion. Such changes are difficult to predict but could conceivably lead to a cease-trade or the de-listing of our Class A common stock, the inability to list the Class A common stock in other jurisdictions or a costly restructuring or even liquidation of Galaxy.

If, whether by reason of changes in law, regulation or interpretation, or by reason of our or our conduct, we became unable to sell securities to investors in particular jurisdictions, the liquidity and market price of the Class A common stock would be negatively impacted, which would make it more difficult for us to sell additional Class A common stock or otherwise raise capital. Such difficulties could lead to our bankruptcy or insolvency, which may lead to material or complete losses for holders of Class A common stock.

In addition, a de-listing of our Class A common stock may cause our Class A Common stock to cease to be a qualified investment for certain tax-deferred plans in Canada. See “Certain Canadian Federal Income Tax Considerations—Eligibility for Investment”.

The majority of the economic interest in GDH LP remains represented by LP Units and each Existing LP may redeem all or a portion of their LP Units for newly issued shares of Class A common stock (or, if we elect, cash of equivalent value) on a one-for-one basis with the number of LP Units redeemed. At our option, we may also effect a direct exchange of such LP Units for shares of Class A common stock (or, if we elect, cash of equivalent value). Upon any such redemption or exchange, shares of Class B common stock held by the LP Unitholders will be cancelled on a one-for-one basis with every LP Unit redeemed or exchanged. As and to the extent LP Units are redeemed or exchanged for newly issued shares of Class A common stock, the economic interest of then-current holders of Class A common stock in Pubco will decrease proportionately (though the direct economic interest of Pubco in GDH LP will increase proportionately). Such redemptions or exchanges would increase the market supply of Class A common stock, which could lead to a decrease in the market price of Class A common stock, especially since it is foreseeable that many redemptions or exchanges may closely precede sales.

Immediately following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, all shares of our Class A common stock into which the ordinary shares of GDHL will ultimately convert by operation of law will be freely tradable in the public market without restriction or further registration under the Securities Act, unless these shares are issued to or then held by one of our “affiliates,” as that term is defined in Rule 144 under the Securities Act (“Rule 144”).

The remaining outstanding shares of Class A common stock (as well as any additional shares of our Class A common stock issuable (i) upon the redemption or exchange of outstanding LP Units held by the Existing LPs or (ii) upon the exchange of outstanding Exchangeable Notes by the holders thereof) will be, and, unless covered by a registration statement on Form S-8 or otherwise registered under the Securities Act, shares of Class A common stock underlying outstanding RSUs or subject to outstanding stock options will be on issuance, deemed to be “restricted securities” as defined in Rule 144. We intend to file a registration statement on Form S-8 under the Securities Act covering all the shares of Class A common stock subject to stock options outstanding and reserved for issuance under our equity incentive plans. Such registration statement will become effective immediately on filing, and shares covered by this registration statement will be eligible for sale in the public markets, subject to Rule 144 limitations applicable to affiliates. We also intend to file one or more resale registration statements on Form S-1 in respect of the shares of Class A common stock issuable upon the redemption or exchange of outstanding LP Units and upon the exchange of outstanding Exchangeable Notes.

If such shares or our Class A common stock are sold, or if it is perceived that they will be sold in the public market, the market price of our Class A common stock could decline. See “Shares Eligible for Future Sale” for more information.

Upon completion of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, our Founder is expected to beneficially own more than 50% of the combined voting power for the election of members of our Board. As a result, if we are successful in listing our Class A common stock on the Nasdaq, we will be a “controlled company” within the meaning of the corporate governance standards of the Nasdaq rules. Under these rules, a listed company of which more than 50% of the voting power is held by an individual, group or another company is a “controlled company” and may elect not to comply with certain Nasdaq corporate governance requirements.

Although we do not currently intend to rely on such exemptions if and when our Class A common stock is listed on the Nasdaq, we may elect to avail ourselves of exemptions from the Nasdaq standards that may enable us not to comply with certain Nasdaq corporate governance requirements in the future, subject to any such election being approved by a majority of Pubco’s independent directors on the Board at such time. To the extent we elect to rely on any exemptions from the Nasdaq standards provided to “controlled companies,” you will not have the same protections afforded to stockholders of companies that are subject to all of the corporate governance requirements of the Nasdaq. See “Management—Controlled company exception.”

Under Sections 3(a)(1)(A) and (C) of the Investment Company Act, a company generally will be deemed to be an “investment company” for purposes of the Investment Company Act if (i) it is, or holds itself out as being, engaged primarily, or proposes to engage primarily, in the business of investing, reinvesting or trading in securities or (ii) it engages, or proposes to engage, in the business of investing, reinvesting, owning, holding or trading in securities and it owns or proposes to acquire investment securities having a value exceeding 40% of the value of its total assets (exclusive of U.S. government securities and cash items) on an unconsolidated basis.

We do not believe that we are an “investment company,” as such term is defined in either of those sections of the Investment Company Act. As the sole general partner of GDH LP, through our wholly-owned subsidiary GDH Delaware, we will control and operate GDH LP. On that basis, we believe that our interest in GDH LP is not an “investment security” as that term is used in the Investment Company Act. However, if we were to cease participation in the management of GDH LP, our interest in GDH LP could be deemed an “investment security” for purposes of the Investment Company Act. We intend to conduct our operations so that we will not be deemed to be an investment company under the Investment Company Act or otherwise conduct our business in a manner that does not subject us to the registration and other requirements of the Investment Company Act. In order to ensure that we are not deemed to be an investment company, we may be limited in the assets that we may continue to own and, further, may need to dispose of or acquire certain assets at such times or on such terms as may be less favorable to us than in the absence of such requirement.

For example, certain of our venture investments may be considered investment securities and we might be required to dispose of one or more of them, or to limit the extent of our venture investments business (such as by foregoing otherwise attractive balance sheet venture investment opportunities), in order not to become an investment company. Further, certain of our operating subsidiaries rely on specific exemptions from the Investment Company Act to operate their businesses. In particular, we operate our digital asset financing business so as to comply with the exemption under Section 3(c)(2) of the Investment Company Act for businesses primarily engaged in, among other things, acting as a market intermediary with respect to financial contracts relating to commodities or currencies. If our digital asset financing business was to fail to comply with this exemption, it could result in our being unable to conduct such business and it could also cause us to be deemed an investment company as our own status under the Investment Company Act depends in part on that of our operating subsidiaries that conduct our businesses. If anything were to happen which would cause us to be deemed to be an investment company under the Investment Company Act (such as the classification of digital assets held by us as securities for purposes of the Investment Company Act, or significant changes in the value of our investments or other assets), the requirements imposed by

In addition, if anything were to happen which would cause us to be deemed to be an investment company under the Investment Company Act, it will become more difficult and costly for us to comply with the applicable requirements of the securities legislation and regulations thereunder of each province and territory of Canada (“Canadian Securities Laws”) following the completion of the Proposed Transactions.

We are not an investment fund and do not intend to operate as an investment fund in the future. Nonetheless, it is possible that we may effectively be classified as the equivalent of a commodity pool (to the extent that digital assets are deemed to fall within the definition or a “commodity interest” under the Commodity Exchange Act) or an investment fund under the investment company laws of various jurisdictions, including the European Union Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive.

Our business is designed to comply with exemptions from the application of such laws, which means that holders of Class A common stock do not and will not benefit from the investor protections provided by such laws. At the same time, we may be constrained by such laws from raising additional capital in certain jurisdictions, to the potential detriment of the value and liquidity of Class A common stock, and we may be restricted or precluded from operating in certain jurisdictions without additional financial registrations or licenses that we do not currently have.

Furthermore, if, whether by reason of changes in law, regulation or interpretation or by reason of our conduct, we no longer qualify for applicable exemptions from commodity pool or investment company laws, the results may materially adversely affect us and could lead to our liquidation or sale, which may lead to material or complete losses for holders of Class A common stock.

The Proposed Organizational Documents of Pubco provide for customarily broad rights of indemnification for directors as well as certain officers or other agents. The organizational documents also provide for the possibility of advancement of expenses to such indemnified persons. In addition, we have entered into indemnification agreements with our directors and officers. While rights of indemnification are typically viewed as a key protection and inducement for indemnified persons to serve in senior roles in which they may be exposed to liability, indemnification payments and advancement of expenses may be material and may have an adverse effect on us. Furthermore, indemnified persons may be subject to derivative or other similar claims brought by the stockholders or us, which claims would generally be expected to be covered by rights of indemnification and, potentially, advancement of expenses. In certain circumstances, subject to applicable laws in the relevant jurisdictions, indemnified persons may be entitled to indemnification even if their liabilities arose from their own negligence or unlawful conduct. We have incurred, and is expected to continue to incur, significant expense to procure directors and officers liability insurance that both supports potential indemnification obligations of Pubco and, in some cases, provides indemnified persons with additional protection beyond the scope of these obligations. If we are unable to maintain adequate insurance, there could be adverse consequences.

GDHL is currently party to a tax receivable agreement with the TRA Parties and, in connection with the Reorganization, Pubco will enter into the Tax Receivable Agreement with the TRA Parties that provides for the payment by us to the TRA Parties of 85% of the amount of cash savings, if any, in U.S. federal, state and local

The actual increase in tax basis, as well as the amount and timing of any payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement, will vary depending upon a number of factors, including the timing of redemptions or exchanges by the TRA Parties, the price of Class A common stock at the time of the exchange, the extent to which such exchanges are taxable, the amount and timing of the taxable income that we generate in the future, the tax rate then applicable and the portion of Pubco’s payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement that constitute imputed interest. The payments that we will be required to make under the Tax Receivable Agreement could be material. The payments are not conditioned upon the other TRA Parties’ continued ownership of Class A common stock.

Payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement will be based on the tax reporting positions we determine, and the IRS or another tax authority may challenge all or a part of the tax basis increases, or other tax attributes subject to the Tax Receivable Agreement, and a court could sustain such challenge. Further, the parties to the Tax Receivable Agreement will not reimburse us for any payments previously made if such tax attributes are subsequently disallowed, except that any excess payments made to a TRA Party will be netted against future payments otherwise to be made to such TRA Party under the Tax Receivable Agreement, if any, after our determination of such excess. In addition, upon the occurrence of certain changes of control, the actual U.S. federal, state and local and non-U.S. tax savings we may realize may be different than the amount of such tax savings we are deemed to realize under the Tax Receivable Agreement, which will be based on the U.S. federal, state and local and non-U.S. tax rates in effect on the date of the change of control and certain assumptions, including that we would have sufficient taxable income to fully utilize the deductions arising from the tax deductions, tax basis and other tax attributes subject to the Tax Receivable Agreement. In both such circumstances, we could make payments to the TRA Parties that are greater than our actual cash tax savings and we may not be able to recoup those payments, which could negatively impact our liquidity. The Tax Receivable Agreement provides that (1) in the event that we breach any of our material obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement or (2) if, at any time, we elect an early termination of the Tax Receivable Agreement, our obligations under the Tax Receivable Agreement (with respect to all LP Units, whether or not LP Units have been redeemed or exchanged before or after such transaction) would accelerate and become payable in a lump sum amount equal to the present value of the anticipated future tax benefits calculated based on certain assumptions, including that we would have sufficient taxable income to fully utilize the deductions arising from the tax basis increases and other tax attributes subject to the Tax Receivable Agreement. The change of control provisions in the Tax Receivable Agreement may result in situations where the Existing LPs have interests that differ from or are in addition to those of our other stockholders.

Finally, because we are a holding company, with no operations of our own, our ability to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement depends on the ability of GDH LP to make distributions to us. To the extent that we are unable to make payments under the Tax Receivable Agreement for any reason, such payments will be deferred and will accrue interest until paid. Non-payment may in certain circumstances constitute a breach of a material obligation under the Tax Receivable Agreement and therefore accelerate payments due under the Tax Receivable Agreement, which could negatively impact our results of operations and could also affect our liquidity in periods in which such payments are made.

One or more countries or jurisdictions, including but not limited to China, Russia, South Korea, the United States and Canada, may take regulatory actions now or in the future that severely restrict the right to acquire, own, hold, sell or use digital assets. Such actions or restrictions may also result in the restriction of holding or trading in our common stock or cause the price of any affected digital asset to decrease, possibly substantially. Such actions or restrictions would likely materially and adversely affect the effectiveness of our investment and trading strategies,

We currently intend to retain our future earnings, if any, for the foreseeable future, to fund the development and growth of our business. We do not intend to pay any dividends to holders of our Class A common stock. As a result, capital appreciation in the price of our Class A common stock, if any, will be your only source of gain on an investment in our Class A common stock. See “Per Share Data, Market and Dividend Information.”

However, under the Amended LP Agreement, GDH LP will generally be required from time to time to make pro rata distributions in cash to us and the other holders of LP Units at certain assumed tax rates in amounts that could be significant. See “—In certain circumstances, GDH LP will be required to make distributions to Pubco and the other holders of LP Units, and the distributions that GDH LP will be required to make may be substantial.”

Failure to maintain comprehensive records of written communications, especially those conducted through off-channel means (such as personal phones, private email accounts, or other devices), poses significant risks for the Company. Inadequate recordkeeping violates regulatory requirements set forth by the SEC. The inability to produce complete and accurate records during examinations can result in enforcement actions, fines, or even revocation of registration. Also, without proper documentation, we may face legal challenges. In the event of disputes, investigations, or litigation, the absence of records can weaken our legal position and hinder effective defense. Failing to capture texts, emails, instant messages, and other off-channel communications also creates operational vulnerabilities. These gaps may lead to misunderstandings, misrepresentations, or unauthorized actions that may cause harm to the Company or its reputation or harm to our clients. Finally, personal devices used for off-channel communications may lack the same security protocols as firm-managed systems. This increases the risk of data breaches, leaks, or unauthorized access.

The accounting rules and regulations that we must comply with are complex and subject to interpretation by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (the “FASB”), and recent actions and public comments from the FASB have focused on the integrity of financial reporting and internal controls. In addition, many companies’ accounting policies are being subjected to heightened scrutiny by regulators and the public. Further, there have been limited precedents for the financial accounting of digital assets and related valuation and revenue recognition, and while the SEC has issued certain staff interpretations regarding the accounting of certain digital asset transactions, there remains significant uncertainty on how companies can account for digital assets transactions, digital assets, and related revenue. For example in December 2023, FASB adopted an accounting standards update which requires certain digital assets to be reported at fair value; however, this update excludes a material portion of digital assets with which the Company transacts. Uncertainties in or changes to in regulatory or financial accounting standards could result in the need to change our accounting methods and restate our financial statements and impair our ability to provide timely and accurate financial information, which could adversely affect our financial statements, result in a loss of investor confidence, and more generally impact our business, operating results, and financial condition.

The prices of digital assets have historically been subject to dramatic price fluctuations and are highly volatile. While we adopted ASU 2023-08 in fiscal year 2023, which requires us to measure a significant portion of our digital

As a result, any decrease in the fair value of certain digital assets below our carrying value for such assets at any time since their acquisition requires us to incur an impairment charge, and such charge could be material to our financial results for the applicable reporting period, which may create significant volatility in our reported earnings and decrease the carrying value of our digital assets, which in turn could have a material adverse effect on the market price of our Class A common stock.

We may sell or purchase additional digital assets in future periods and correspondingly decrease or increase our overall holdings of digital assets, and the proportion of our total assets represented by digital asset holdings may increase in the future. As a result, volatility in our earnings in future periods may be significantly more than what we experienced in prior periods.

Prior to the Reorganization, we have not been subject to the reporting requirements of the SEC or the requirement to assess the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting required for a public company in the United States. In connection with the preparation of GDH LP’s consolidated financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2023, we identified one material weakness in our internal control over financial reporting, which had not been remediated as of the reporting date. A material weakness is defined as a deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. The noted material weakness which remains outstanding is as follows:

We did not design certain process-level and management review controls at a sufficient level of precision to (1) appropriately review digital asset contractual relationships to determine the accounting conclusions, including whether transactions were executed as principal or agent and whether arrangements give rise to a safeguarding relationship and (2) to validate the accuracy of data elements utilized in spreadsheets for accounting for digital assets, issued financial instruments, classification of cash flows, the valuation and disclosure of investments, and impairment of property and equipment.

We continue to execute our plan to remediate the identified material weakness. The remediation measures are ongoing, and although not all inclusive, include implementing additional policies, procedures, and controls.

We are working to remediate our material weakness as efficiently and effectively as possible. At this time, we cannot provide an estimate of the timing for achieving full remediation or the costs expected to be incurred in connection with implementing this remediation plan; however, these remediation measures will be time-consuming,

Neither we nor our independent registered public accounting firm performed an evaluation of internal control over financial reporting during any period in accordance with the rules and regulations of the SEC. Had we or our independent registered public accounting firm performed an evaluation of our internal control over financial reporting in accordance with the rules and regulations of the SEC, additional material weaknesses may have been identified. Failure to comply with the rules and regulations of the SEC could also potentially subject us to sanctions or investigations by the SEC or other regulatory authorities.

As a trader in digital assets, we will trade in a variety of assets with a number of different counterparties on both an anonymous and disclosed basis. We may at times trade with others who have information that is more accurate or complete than our, and as a result we may accumulate unfavorable positions at unfavorable prices preceding large price movements in a given instrument. If the frequency or magnitude of these events increases, our losses would likely increase correspondingly, which could have a material and adverse effect on the effectiveness of our investment or trading strategies and on any investment in us.

Digital assets, including but not limited to, bitcoin, can fluctuate dramatically in value and can lose a material portion of their value in a short period of time. There can be no assurance as to the value of our portfolio as of any date in the future. Any future valuation could diverge from previous estimates as a result of market fluctuations or additional third-party valuations of underlying assets using different and potentially inconsistent methods, financial reporting requirements under U.S. GAAP or other factors.

For the purposes of U.S. GAAP-compliant financial reporting, our assets and liabilities are valued in accordance with GAAP. Accordingly, we are required to follow a specific framework for measuring the fair value of our assets and liabilities and, in our audited financial statements, to provide certain disclosures regarding the use of fair value measurements.

The fair value measurement accounting guidance establishes a hierarchical disclosure framework that ranks the observability of market inputs used in measuring financing instruments at fair value. The observability of inputs depends on a number of factors, including the type of financial instrument, the characteristics specific to the financial instrument and the state of the marketplace, including the existence and transparency of transactions between market participants. Financial instruments with readily quoted prices, or for which fair value can be measured from quoted prices in active markets, generally will have a high degree of market price observability and less judgment applied in determining fair value.

We hold certain assets, such as privately placed equity, debt, warrants or options, digital asset receivables and certain restricted digital assets, that will not have readily assessable market values. In such instances, we will determine the fair value of such securities based on various factors. In connection with securities for which no external pricing information is available, we may rely on internal pricing models or third-party valuation agents. Such valuations may vary from similar valuations performed by other independent third parties for similar types of securities. The valuation of illiquid assets is inherently subjective and subject to increased risk that the information used to value the asset or to create the price models may be inaccurate or subject to other error. Inaccurate valuations may, among other things, hinder us from effectively managing our investment portfolios and risks.

The value of our portfolio may also be affected by changes in accounting standards, policies or practices. From time to time, we will be required to adopt new or revised accounting standards or guidance. It is possible that future accounting standards that we are required to adopt could materially change the valuation of our assets and liabilities.

Because of a wide variety of market factors and the nature of assets held by us, there is no guarantee that the value determined by us or a third-party valuation agent will represent the value that will be realized by us on the eventual disposition of the asset or that would, in fact, be realized upon an immediate disposition of the asset. Moreover, the valuations to be performed by us or a third-party valuation agent are inherently different from the valuation of our securities that would be performed if we were forced to liquidate all or a significant portion of our securities, which liquidation valuation could be materially lower

The trading market for our Class A common stock will rely in part on the research and reports that industry or financial analysts publish about us or our business. We do not control these analysts. If securities or industry analysts drop coverage of our company or fail to commence coverage of us, the market price of our shares would likely be negatively impacted. Furthermore, if one or more of the analysts who do cover us downgrade our stock or our industry, or the stock of any of our competitors, or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the price of our Class A common stock could decline. If one or more of these analysts stops covering us or fails to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the market, which, in turn, could cause our stock price or trading volume to decline.

Additionally, any fluctuation in the credit rating of us or our subsidiaries may impact our ability to access debt markets in the future or increase our cost of future debt, which could have a material adverse effect on our operations and financial condition, which in return may adversely affect the market price of shares of our Class A common stock.

Preparation of financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates based upon assumptions about future economic and market conditions which affect reported amounts and related disclosures in our financial statements. If subsequent events occur that are materially different than the assumptions and estimates we used, our reported financial condition, results of operation and cash flows may be materially negatively impacted.

Following the Reorganization, we also anticipate supplementing our U.S. GAAP financial statements from time to time with certain non-GAAP measures. However, such non-GAAP measures are not a replacement for our GAAP results, and are subject to important additional risks and uncertainties discussed under “Non-GAAP Financial Measure.” The accounting for, and audit standards relating to, digital assets remain subject to further guidance. To the extent that such guidance imposes obligations on audit firms that they are not able to meet with respect to the review of digital assets, we could have difficulty in obtaining an audit opinion, filing audited financial statements in a timely manner or obtaining an unqualified opinion.

Further, from time to time, regulators change the financial accounting and reporting standards governing the preparation of our financial statements or the interpretation of those standards. These changes are difficult to predict and can materially impact how we record and report our financial condition, results of operations, cash flows and other financial data. In some cases, we may be required to apply a new or revised standard retroactively or to apply an existing standard differently, also retroactively, in each case potentially resulting in the restatement of prior period financial statements and related disclosures, which could have a material adverse effect on the market price of our Class A common stock.

We are not currently required to publish a formal assessment of the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting under the SEC rules that implement Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, and will not be required to do so until we file our second annual report on Form 10-K, and our independent auditors may be required to issue an attestation report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting as early as when we file our second report on Form 10-K. We may incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort in the process of ensuring compliance with the attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

When evaluating our internal control over financial reporting, we may identify additional material weaknesses that we may not be able to remediate in time to meet the applicable deadline imposed upon us for compliance with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. In addition, if we fail to achieve and maintain the adequacy of our internal controls, as such standards are modified, supplemented or amended from time to time, we may not be able to ensure that we can conclude on an ongoing basis that we have effective internal control over financial reporting in accordance with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. We cannot be certain as to the timing of completion of our evaluation, testing and any remediation actions or the impact of the same on our operations. If we are not able to implement the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in a timely manner or with adequate compliance, our independent auditors may issue an adverse opinion due to ineffective internal control over financial reporting, and we may be subject to sanctions or investigation by regulatory authorities, such as the SEC. As a result, there could be a negative reaction in the financial markets due to a loss of confidence in the reliability of our financial statements. In addition, we may be required to incur costs in improving our internal controls system and the hiring of additional personnel. Any such action could negatively affect our results of operations and cash flows.

We incur significant levels of legal, accounting and other expenses in respect of our status as a publicly listed company in Canada. Canadian Securities Law, together with the listing requirements of the TSX impose significant requirements relating to disclosure controls and procedures and internal control over financial reporting. Upon consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, our Class A common stock will be registered under the Exchange Act, and we will be required to comply with, and incur costs associated with such compliance with, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, or the Dodd-Frank Act, as well as rules and regulations implemented by the SEC. In addition, to the extent we are successful in listing our Class A common stock on Nasdaq, we will also need to comply with its rules and regulations. The expenses incurred by U.S. public companies generally for reporting and corporate governance purposes have been increasing. We expect that compliance with these rules and regulations will increase our legal and financial compliance costs, require us to hire additional personnel, and will make some activities more time consuming and costly. Our management will need to devote a substantial amount of time to ensure that we comply with all of these requirements, diverting the attention of management away from revenue-producing activities. These laws and regulations also could make it more difficult or costly for us to obtain certain types of insurance, including director and officer liability insurance, and we may be forced to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. These laws and regulations could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified persons to serve on our board of directors, our board committees or as our executive officers.

As a result of becoming subject to increased regulation upon consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, we will need to:

In addition, as a company in the digital assets industry, we may experience higher-than-anticipated operating expenses as well as higher independent auditor and consulting fees and may need to hire additional qualified personnel to continue to satisfy these public-company requirements. We are required to expend considerable time and resources with respect to our compliance with public company regulations and, following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, this will be exacerbated and we will incur even greater expenses. If we are unable to satisfy our obligations as a public company, we could be subject to de-listing of our Class A common stock on any stock exchange on which it is then listed, fines, sanctions or other detrimental regulatory actions.

Our management team has limited experience managing a U.S. publicly traded company, interacting with U.S. public company investors, and complying with the increasingly complex laws pertaining to U.S. public companies. Our management team may not successfully or efficiently manage our transition to being a U.S. public company subject to significant regulatory oversight and reporting obligations under the federal securities laws and the continuous scrutiny of securities analysts and investors. For a period of time following the consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, and immediately following our intended listing on the Nasdaq (if successful), we will remain listed on the TSX, and we expect to continue to be subject to certain Canadian Securities Laws requiring us to file reports and other information on SEDAR for the foreseeable future, and will therefore be subject to multiple, additional, and at times, competing, governance and reporting obligations. These new obligations and constituents will require significant attention from our senior management and could divert their attention away from the day-to-day management of our business, which could adversely affect our business, operating results, and financial condition.

Further, some members of our management team have recently joined our company and will need to be successfully integrated in order to effectively execute our business plan and developmental strategies. Our management team therefore has limited historical experience with our clients, our business and our industry and the process of transitioning our new members into our business is complex and time consuming. This may impact our ability to collectively respond to issues in a quick and efficient manner. If our management team is unable to develop a business strategy that can be executed in a successful manner, it could materially adversely impact business and our revenue.

If the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger are consummated, existing GDHL shareholders will become stockholders of Pubco, a Delaware corporation. The organizational documents of Pubco to be in effect following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, which we refer to as the Proposed Organizational Documents, and the DGCL contain provisions that differ in some respects from those in GDHL’s existing organizational documents and Cayman Islands law and, therefore, some rights of the holders of our Class A common stock following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger could differ from the rights that GDHL’s shareholders currently possess. For instance, while class actions are generally not available to shareholders under Cayman Islands law, such actions are generally available under the DGCL. This change could increase the likelihood that we become involved in costly litigation, which could have a material adverse effect on us.

For a more detailed description of the rights of our shareholders prior to the Reorganization and Reorganization Merger and how they may differ from such holders rights following such transactions, please see “The Proposed Transactions—The Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment.” Forms of the Proposed Organizational Documents are attached as Annexes B and C to this prospectus and we urge you to read them.

Certain statutory provisions generally afforded to stockholders of a Delaware corporation will not be applicable to Pubco. For example, the Proposed Charter will contain a provision renouncing our interest and expectancy in certain corporate opportunities, such that any members of the board of directors who are not also employees of Pubco, GDH LP or any of their respective subsidiaries will have any duty to refrain from engaging in the same or similar business activities or lines of business as us. The Proposed Charter will provide that, to the fullest extent permitted by applicable law, we renounce our right to certain business opportunities, and that any such member of our board of directors has no duty to communicate or offer such business opportunity to us and is not liable to us or any of our stockholders for breach of any fiduciary or other duty under statutory or common law, as a director, officer or controlling stockholder, or otherwise, by reason of the fact that any such individual pursues or acquires such business opportunity, directs such business opportunity to another person or fails to present such business opportunity, or information regarding such business opportunity, to us. Pubco’s Proposed Organizational Documents waive any corporate opportunity doctrine and similar claims against any non-employee directors (other than to the extent any corporate opportunity is offered to a non-employee director in his or her capacity as a director).

In addition, pursuant to the Proposed Charter, Pubco will opt out of Section 203 of the DGCL with respect to certain existing shareholders (including our Founder), which prohibits a publicly held Delaware corporation from engaging in a business combination transaction with an interested stockholder for a period of three years after the interested stockholder became such unless such transaction fits within an applicable exemption, such as board approval of the business combination or the transaction in which resulted in such stockholder becoming an interested

Further, pursuant to the director nomination agreement with GGI (the “Director Nomination Agreement”), our Founder will have the right to nominate one director to our board of directors for so long as our Founder continues to beneficially own at least 25% of our Class A common stock. As a result, following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, our Founder will be able to designate himself or another nominee for election to our board of directors provided that the right of any director designated by our Founder to serve on a committee will be subject to applicable laws and Nasdaq independence rules.

See “Description of Pubco Capital Stock” for more information regarding Pubco’s Proposed Organizational Documents.

Pubco’s Proposed Organizational Documents contain provisions that could depress the market price of our common stock by acting to discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company or changes in our management that the stockholders of our company may deem advantageous. These provisions include:

Such provisions could impede any merger, consolidation, takeover or other business combination involving our company or any of our subsidiaries or discourage a potential acquirer from making a tender offer or otherwise attempting to obtain control of us or our subsidiaries. See the section entitled “The Proposed Transactions—The Reorganization—The Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment.”

In addition, a third party attempting to acquire us or a substantial position in our common stock may be delayed or ultimately prevented from doing so by change in ownership or control regulations to which our regulated broker-dealer subsidiaries are subject. FINRA Rule 1017 generally provides that FINRA approval must be obtained in connection with any transaction resulting in a single person or entity owning, directly or indirectly, 25% or more of a member firm’s equity and would include a change of control of a parent company.

The Proposed Charter, which will be in effect upon consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, will provide that, unless we consent in writing to the selection of an alternative forum, to the fullest extent permitted by law, the sole and exclusive forum for (i) any derivative action or proceeding brought on our behalf, (ii) any action or proceeding asserting a claim of breach of a fiduciary duty owed by any of our directors, officers or other employees to us or our stockholders, (iii) any action or proceeding arising pursuant to, or seeking to enforce any right, obligation or remedy under, any provision of the DGCL, the Proposed Charter or the Proposed Bylaws, (iv) any action or proceeding seeking to interpret, apply, enforce or determine the validity of the Proposed Charter or the Proposed Bylaws, (v) any action or proceeding asserting a claim that is governed by the internal affairs doctrine or (vi) any action or proceeding as to which the DGCL confers jurisdiction on the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware shall be the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware (or, if the Court of Chancery does not have subject matter jurisdiction, another state court sitting in the State of Delaware (or, if no state court located within the State of Delaware has jurisdiction, the federal district court for the District of Delaware), in all cases subject to the court having jurisdiction over indispensable parties named as defendants. Additionally, our Proposed Charter will state that the foregoing provision will not apply to claims arising under the Securities Act, the Exchange Act or other federal securities laws for which there is exclusive federal or concurrent federal and state jurisdiction. The Proposed Charter will also provide that the federal district courts of the United States will be the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action under the Securities Act or the Exchange Act.

Any person or entity purchasing or otherwise acquiring or holding any interest in any of our securities shall be deemed to have notice of and consented to these provisions. These exclusive forum provisions may limit a stockholder’s ability to bring a claim in a judicial forum of its choosing for disputes with us or our directors, officers, or other employees, which may discourage lawsuits against us and our directors, officers, and other employees. The enforceability of similar choice of forum provisions in other companies’ charter documents has been challenged in legal proceedings, and it is possible that a court could find these types of provisions to be inapplicable or unenforceable. For example, in December 2018, the Court of Chancery of the State of Delaware determined that a provision stating that federal district courts of the United States are the exclusive forum for resolving any complaint asserting a cause of action arising under the Securities Act is not enforceable. Although this decision was reversed by the Delaware Supreme Court in March 2020, courts in other states may still find these provisions to be inapplicable or unenforceable. If a court were to find the exclusive forum provisions in the Proposed Charter to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving the dispute in other jurisdictions, which could adversely affect our results of operations.

The Domestication will result in additional direct costs. We will incur attorneys’ fees, accountants’ fees, filing fees, mailing expenses and financial printing expenses in connection with the Domestication. The Domestication will also temporarily divert the attention of our management and employees from the day-to-day management of the business to a limited extent.

Following the Domestication, we will be domiciled in the state of Delaware. Historically, U.S. governed companies have been exposed to a greater risk of class action stockholder litigation as compared to Cayman governed companies.

We may not realize the benefits we expect from the Domestication. If we do not, we will have expended considerable resources and management efforts in completing the Domestication without benefiting our company or our stockholders. Such expenditure of time and resources would adversely affect our business, operating results, and financial condition if the anticipated benefits are not achieved.

As discussed more fully in “Certain U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations” below, GDHL has received an opinion of counsel to the effect that the Domestication will constitute a reorganization within the meaning of Section 368(a)(1)(F) of the Code. Assuming that the Domestication so qualifies, U.S. Holders (as defined in such section) of GDHL ordinary shares will be subject to Section 367(b) of the Code and, as a result:

The tax consequences of the Domestication are complex and will depend on a holder’s particular circumstances. All holders are strongly urged to consult their tax advisor for a full description and understanding of the tax consequences of the Domestication, including the applicability and effect of U.S. federal, state, local and foreign income and other tax laws. For a complete discussion of the material U.S. federal income tax consequences of the Domestication, see the section entitled “Certain U.S. Federal Income Tax Considerations” below.

The completion of the Reorganization is subject to a number of conditions precedent, some of which are outside our control, including receipt of the required shareholder approval and regulatory approvals from Canadian securities regulators and the TSX. There can be no certainty, nor can we provide any assurance, that all conditions precedent to the Reorganization will be satisfied or waived, or, if satisfied or waived, when they will be satisfied or waived. If the Reorganization is not completed, the market price of the ordinary shares may be materially adversely affected. GDHL’s business, financial condition or results of operations or prospects, could also be subject to various material adverse consequences. Also, GDHL will not recover the fees, costs and expenses it has incurred in connection with the Reorganization. Such fees, costs and expenses include, without limitation, legal fees, accounting fees, financial advisor fees, valuation fees, depositary fees and printing and mailing costs, which will be payable whether or not the Reorganization is completed.

GDHL is a holding company and is incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Prior to the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, all of our activities are conducted through GDH LP (operating as a Cayman Islands exempted limited partnership) and its subsidiaries, and GDHL’s principal asset is its ownership, directly and indirectly, of Class A-1 Units and Class A-2 Units (collectively, “Class A Units”) of GDH LP which entitles it to a corresponding percentage ownership of the economic interest in our business. Galaxy Digital Holdings GP LLC (“GDH GP”) is the existing general partner of GDH LP. Galaxy Group Investments LLC (“GGI”), which is controlled by our Founder, is the parent company of GDH GP, and therefore indirectly controls GDH LP. Because GDHL does not manage or operate the business or control the strategic decisions and day-to-day operations of GDH LP and because GDHL only has a minority economic interest in GDH LP, GDHL does not currently consolidate the financial results of GDH LP and instead accounts for it as an equity method noncontrolling interest to reflect GDHL’s entitlement to a portion of GDH LP’s net income.

In connection with the Reorganization, the existing amended and restated limited partnership agreement of GDH LP will be further amended and restated to effect the continuation of GDH LP after its domestication as a Delaware limited partnership. Prior to the consummation of the Reorganization, all of GDH LP’s outstanding limited partnership interests, other than those owned by GDHL and its wholly-owned subsidiary GDH Intermediate LLC, are owned by GGI and certain other holders of Class B Units (the “Existing Class B Unitholders” and, together with GGI, the “Existing LPs”), and all of GDH LP’s outstanding general partnership interests are owned by GDH GP, its general partner.

GDHL intends, subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, to effect a deregistration under the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) and a domestication under Section 388 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, pursuant to which domestication the jurisdiction of incorporation for GDHL will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (the “Domestication” and, GDHL following the Domestication, “GDH Delaware”). Subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders of the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment, GDH Delaware will adopt the Proposed Organizational Documents upon the effectiveness of the Domestication, and the Proposed Organizational Documents will be substantively identical to the governing documents of Pubco that will be in effect following the Reorganization Merger. The Proposed Organizational Documents will authorize the issuance of two classes of common stock of GDH Delaware prior to the Reorganization Merger and of Pubco following the Reorganization Merger: Class A common stock and Class B common stock. In the Domestication, all of the issued and outstanding of ordinary shares of GDHL will convert, automatically and by operation of law without redemption or cancellation, on a one-for-one basis into an equivalent number of shares of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware and GDH Delaware will, pursuant to its post-Domestication certificate of incorporation, be authorized to issue 500 million shares of Class B common stock. Additionally, in the Domestication, GDHL will change its name to, and GDH Delaware’s name will be, “Galaxy Digital Holdings Inc.”

Each share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (prior to the Reorganization Merger) and Pubco (following the Reorganization Merger) will entitle its holder to one vote per share on all matters submitted to a vote of our stockholders. Shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (prior to the Reorganization Merger) and Pubco (following the Reorganization Merger) will not be entitled to economic interests. See the section entitled “Description of Pubco Capital Stock.” Following the Domestication but immediately prior to the Reorganization Merger, GDH Delaware expects to issue a number of shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (which shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware will convert automatically and by operation of law on a one-for-one basis into shares of Class B common stock of Pubco in the Reorganization Merger) to each Existing LP holding Class B Units of GDH LP equal to the number of Class B Units of GDH LP held by each such Existing LP immediately following the Domestication. The shares of Class B common stock of Pubco into which the shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware issued in the Issuance of Class B Common Stock will convert in the Reorganization Merger will not represent any economic interest in GDH Delaware or Pubco, and will solely represent voting interests in Pubco (with each Existing LP continuing to hold their economic interest in GDH LP directly by virtue of their ownership of LP Units, into which the Class B Units of GDH LP will convert by operation of law upon consummation of the Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP). Each holder of a share of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware will be entitled to one vote per share, and will vote together with holders of shares of Class A common stock on all matters submitted to a vote of holders of GDH Delaware common stock.

All such transactions are referred to collectively as the “Reorganization.”

Following the Reorganization, GDH Delaware will merge with and into Pubco, an entity formed primarily for the purpose of consummating the transactions described in this registration statement and that does not have any assets or operations, with Pubco continuing as the surviving entity, and shareholders of GDH Delaware receiving shares of Pubco in exchange for their shares of GDH Delaware (the “Reorganization Merger”). Additionally, in the Reorganization Merger, the certificate of incorporation and bylaws of Pubco will be amended and restated to be substantively identical to the Proposed Organizational Documents. Following the Reorganization Merger, each share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of Pubco will entitle its holder to one vote per share on all matters submitted to a vote of Pubco stockholders. Shares of Class B common stock of Pubco will not have any rights to receive dividends or distributions on liquidation of Pubco (beyond their par value).

As a result of and following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, as described in this prospectus, Pubco will succeed GDHL as the publicly traded company in which existing holders of GDHL ordinary shares will own their interests, and all securities being registered pursuant to this registration statement will be issued by Pubco as the continuing entity following such transactions.

In connection with the Reorganization, concurrently with the Domestication, GDH LP also expects to deregister under the Cayman Islands Exempted Limited Partnerships Act (As Revised) and domesticate under Section 15-901 of the Delaware Revised Uniform Partnership Act, pursuant to which domestication the jurisdiction of formation for GDH LP will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (the “Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP”). Upon the completion of the Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP, GDH LP will enter into the amended and restated limited partnership agreement of GDH LP (“Amended LP Agreement”), pursuant to which all of GDH LP’s Class A Units and Class B Units will be reclassified into a single class of units of GDH LP (“LP Units”). Under the Amended LP Agreement, holders of LP Units (other than us and our wholly-owned subsidiaries), including the Existing LPs, will have the right, from and after the completion of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger (subject to the terms of the Amended LP Agreement), to require GDH LP to redeem all or a portion of their LP Units for, at our election, newly issued shares of Class A common stock of Pubco on a one-for-one basis or a cash payment equal to the volume-weighted average market price of one share of Class A common stock of Pubco for each LP Unit redeemed (subject to customary adjustments, including for stock splits, stock dividends and reclassifications) in accordance with the terms of the Amended LP Agreement. Additionally, in the event of a redemption request from a holder of LP Units, we may, at our option, effect a direct exchange of cash or Class A common stock of Pubco for LP Units in lieu of such a redemption. A corresponding number of shares of Class B common stock of Pubco will be cancelled on a one-for-one basis if we, following a redemption request from a holder of LP Units, redeem or exchange LP Units of such holder pursuant to the terms of the Amended LP Agreement. See “Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions—Amended and restated GDH LP agreement.” Except for transfers to us or to certain permitted transferees pursuant to the Amended LP Agreement, the LP Units and shares of Class B common stock may not be sold, transferred or otherwise disposed of.

GDHL is currently party to a tax receivable agreement with the TRA Parties and, in connection with the Reorganization, Pubco will enter into the Tax Receivable Agreement with the TRA Parties that provides for the payment by us to the TRA Parties of 85% of the amount of cash savings, if any, in U.S. federal, state and local income tax or franchise tax that Pubco actually realizes as a result (i) of any increase in tax basis in GDH LP’s assets resulting from redemptions or exchanges by those holders of LP Units and payments made under the Tax Receivable Agreement, and (ii) deductions in respect of interest with respect to payments made under the Tax Receivable Agreement, as and when such tax benefits are realized. Pubco will be required to make similar payments to GDH LP limited partners who previously exchanged their partnership interests in GDH LP for GDHL ordinary shares. We will retain the benefit of the remaining 15% of these tax savings.

GDHL’s ordinary shares are currently listed on the TSX. In connection with the Reorganization, we intend to apply to have Pubco’s Class A common stock approved for listing on the Nasdaq, either concurrently with or subsequent to consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger. For a period of time following the consummation of the Reorganization, and immediately following our intended listing on the Nasdaq, we will remain listed on the TSX. Pubco ultimately may choose to delist its shares from the TSX in the future, which would not require further shareholder approval under TSX rules provided an acceptable alternative market exists for Pubco’s Class A common stock. There can be no assurance as to whether such listing and/or delisting will occur on the terms described herein or at all.

The full text of the resolutions approving the Proposals is as follows:

“RESOLVED, as a special resolution that:

RESOLVED, that the Company, following the steps set out above, issue up to 500 million shares of Class B Common Stock as described in the Management Circular.

RESOLVED, as an ordinary resolution, that the adjournment of the special meeting of shareholders, which shall constitute an extraordinary general meeting for purposes of the Memorandum and Articles of Association of the Company (the “Meeting”) to a later date or dates, if necessary or appropriate, to permit further solicitation and vote

Each of the Proposals that must be approved by special resolution and must be approved, as a matter of Cayman Islands law, by the affirmative vote of the holders of not less than two-thirds of the GDHL shareholders who, being present in person or virtually or represented by proxy and entitled to vote at the Meeting, vote at the Meeting. Each of the Proposals that must be approved by ordinary resolution must be approved, as a matter of Cayman Islands law, by the affirmative vote of the holders of a majority of the GDHL shareholders who, being present in person or virtually or represented by proxy and entitled to vote at the Meeting, vote at the Meeting. The Issuance of Class B Common Stock Proposal must be approved by a simple majority, excluding persons required to be excluded for the purpose of such vote under MI 61-101.

While the Issuance of Class B Common Stock Proposal is conditional on the Domestication Proposal, the Governing Documents Amendment Proposal, the Proposed Organizational Documents Proposal and the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences Proposals, collectively, the Adjournment Proposal is not conditional on the approval of any other Proposal.

The GDHL Record Date is earlier than the date on which the transactions that are the subject of the Proposals are expected to be completed. If you transfer your ordinary shares of GDHL after the GDHL Record Date, but before the Meeting, unless the transferee obtains from you a proxy to vote those shares, you will retain your right to vote at the Meeting. If you transfer your ordinary shares of GDHL prior to the GDHL Record Date, you will have no right to vote those shares at the Meeting.

GDHL will appoint a scrutineer at the Meeting, who will collect all proxies and ballots and tabulate the results. The scrutineer is typically a representative of GDHL’s transfer agent.

GDHL shareholders are being asked to consider and vote upon the Adjournment, a technical proposal to allow the chairman to adjourn the Meeting to a later date or dates, if necessary or appropriate, to permit further solicitation and vote of proxies in the event that there are insufficient votes for, or otherwise in connection with, the approval of the proposals relating to Reorganization. If the Adjournment Proposal is not approved by Shareholders, the Board may not be able to adjourn the Meeting to a later date in the event that there are insufficient votes to approve one or more resolutions at the Meeting.

This Management Circular is furnished in connection with the solicitation of proxies by the management of GDHL to be used at the Meeting. Solicitations of proxies will be primarily by mail, but may also be solicited personally or by Internet or telephone by directors, officers and regular employees of GDHL. They will not be paid any additional amounts for soliciting proxies. All costs of the solicitation will be borne by GDHL. GDHL has also engaged TMX Investor Solutions Inc. to assist with the solicitation of proxies. For questions on voting your shares, please contact TMX Investor Solutions Inc., by email at INFO_TMXIS@tmx.com, by telephone at 1 (800) 332-4904 (toll free within North America) or for outside North America, call direct at (416) 682-3825. GDHL has agreed to pay TMX Investor Solutions Inc. a fee of $17,750, plus a potential $17,750 success fee and reimbursement of certain disbursements. GDHL will also reimburse TMX Investor Solutions Inc. for certain out-of-pocket losses, damages and expenses.

The persons named in the proxy will vote or withhold from voting GDHL ordinary shares represented thereby in accordance with your instructions on any ballot that may be called for. If you specify a choice with respect to any matter to be acted upon, your GDHL ordinary shares will be voted accordingly. The proxy confers discretionary authority on the persons named therein with respect to:

If you are a Registered Shareholder, there are two ways to vote: (1) by completing and mailing your proxy, (2) logging into the website to vote, or (3) by voting in person or virtually at the Meeting.

To be effective, a properly executed proxy from a Registered Shareholder must be submitted using one of the following methods:

In addition to any other manner permitted by law, a proxy may be revoked by:

A revocation of a proxy will not affect a matter on which a vote is taken before the revocation.

A Registered Shareholder attending the Meeting has the right to vote by attending the Meeting and, if he or she does so, his or her proxy is nullified with respect to the matters such person votes upon and any subsequent matters thereafter to be voted upon at the Meeting or any adjournment thereof.

Under normal conditions, confidentiality of voting is maintained by virtue of the fact that TSX Trust Company tabulates proxies and votes. However, such confidentiality may be lost as to any proxy or ballot if a question arises as to its validity or revocation or any other like matter. Loss of confidentiality may also occur if GDHL’s board of directors decides that disclosure is in the interests of GDHL or its shareholders.

The following information is of significant importance to shareholders who do not hold GDHL ordinary shares in their own name. Beneficial Shareholders should note that the only proxies that can be recognized and acted upon at the Meeting are those deposited by Registered Shareholders or as set out in the following disclosure.

If GDHL ordinary shares are listed in an account statement provided to a shareholder by a broker, then in almost all cases those GDHL ordinary shares will not be registered in the shareholder’s name on the records of GDHL. GDHL’s ordinary shares will more likely be registered under the names of Intermediaries. For example, in Canada, under the name of CDS (the registration name for The Canadian Depository for Securities Limited, which acts as nominee for many Canadian brokerage firms).

Intermediaries are required to seek voting instructions from Beneficial Shareholders in advance of meetings of Shareholders. Every Intermediary has its own mailing procedures and provides its own return instructions to clients.

There are two kinds of Beneficial Shareholders—those who object to their name being made known to the issuers of securities which they own (called “OBOs” for Objecting Beneficial Owners) and those who do not object to the issuers of the securities they own knowing who they are (called “NOBOs” for Non-Objecting Beneficial Owners).

GDHL is taking advantage of the provisions of National Instrument 54-101—Communication with Beneficial Owners of Securities of a Reporting Issuer (“NI 54-101”) that permit it to deliver proxy-related materials directly to its NOBOs. As a result, NOBOs can expect to receive a scannable Voting Instruction Form (“VIF”) from TSX Trust Company. The VIF is to be completed and returned to TSX Trust Company as set out in the instructions provided on the VIF. TSX Trust Company will tabulate the results of the VIFs received from NOBOs.

These shareholder materials are being sent to both Registered and Beneficial Shareholders. If you are a Beneficial Shareholder, and GDHL or its agent has sent these materials directly to you, your name, address and information about your holdings of GDHL ordinary shares, were obtained in accordance with applicable securities regulatory requirements from the Intermediary holding GDHL ordinary shares on your behalf.

By choosing to send these materials to you directly, GDHL (and not the Intermediary holding GDHL ordinary shares on your behalf) has assumed responsibility for (i) delivering these materials to you, and (ii) executing your proper voting instructions. Please return your VIF as specified in the request for voting instructions that was sent to you.

Beneficial Shareholders who are OBOs should follow the instructions of their Intermediary carefully to ensure that their GDHL ordinary shares are voted at the Meeting. GDHL does not intend to pay for Intermediaries to forward to OBOs under NI 54-101 the proxy-related materials and Form 54-101F7—Request for Voting Instructions Made by Intermediary, and in the case of an OBO, the OBO will not receive the materials unless the OBO’s Intermediary assumes the cost of delivery.

The proxy supplied to you by your broker will be similar to the proxy provided to Registered Shareholders by GDHL. However, its purpose is limited to instructing the Intermediary on how to vote your GDHL ordinary shares on your behalf. Most brokers delegate responsibility for obtaining instructions from clients to Broadridge in the United States and in Canada. Broadridge mails a VIF in lieu of a proxy provided by GDHL. The VIF will name the same persons as GDHL’s proxy to represent your Ordinary Shares at the Meeting. You have the right to appoint a person (who need not be a Beneficial Shareholder of GDHL), other than any of the persons designated in the VIF, to represent your GDHL ordinary shares at the Meeting and that person may be you. To exercise this right, insert the name of the desired representative (which may be you) in the blank space provided in the VIF.

The completed VIF must then be returned to Broadridge by mail or facsimile or given to Broadridge by phone or over the internet, in accordance with Broadridge’s instructions. Broadridge then tabulates the results of all instructions received and provides appropriate instructions respecting the voting of GDHL ordinary shares to be represented at the Meeting and the appointment of any GDHL shareholder’s representative. If you receive a VIF from Broadridge, the VIF must be completed and returned to Broadridge, in accordance with its instructions, well in advance of the Meeting in order to have your GDHL ordinary shares voted or to have an alternate representative duly appointed to attend the Meeting and vote your GDHL ordinary shares at the Meeting.

Shareholders may receive more than one set of voting materials, including multiple copies of this Management Circular and multiple proxies or VIFs. For example, if you hold your shares in more than one brokerage account, you will receive a separate VIF for each brokerage account in which you hold shares. If you are a Registered Shareholder and your shares are registered in more than one name, you will receive more than one proxy. Please complete, sign, date and return each proxy and VIF that you receive in order to cast your vote with respect to all of your GDHL ordinary shares.

The Existing Organizational Documents provide for a “Certification Process Adjustment” whereby, in connection with any resolution passed by GDHL shareholders (each, a “Shareholder Resolution”), each GDHL shareholder shall be required to provide a certification as to its status, and the status of any person for whom the GDHL shareholder holds GDHL ordinary shares beneficially, as a United States resident or a non-United States resident. In connection with the Certification Process Adjustment, in respect of any Shareholder Resolution in a meeting or in writing, each GDHL shareholder shall be required to certify that, at the time of the meeting (or any adjournment thereof) at which the resolution is tabled, or in the case of the resolution being proposed as a written resolution, at the time of signifying its agreement to the proposed written resolution: (a) it is not a United States resident; and (b) to the extent it holds GDHL ordinary shares for the account or benefit of any other person, such person is not a United States resident (each GDHL shareholder not making such certification, a “Non-Certifying Shareholder”). GDHL shareholders who certify that they hold GDHL ordinary shares for the account or benefit of any other person who is a United States resident, will also be asked to certify the extent to which GDHL ordinary shares they own beneficially are owned beneficially for United States residents and to which GDHL ordinary shares

The proxy, VIF and declaration of beneficial ownership (which declaration of ownership is to be completed, if required, as per the instructions set out therein and returned to TSX Trust Company within the timelines applicable to the return of a proxy or VIF as set out above) accompanying this Management Circular allow each Shareholder to make the certifications referred to above. Shareholders attending the Meeting in person will be required to make the certifications when they arrive at the Meeting.

For the purposes of calculating the number of votes which Non-Certifying Shareholders are entitled to cast on a Shareholder Resolution, if and to the extent that, in the absence of the Certification Process Adjustment:

Where the aggregate number of votes actually cast by Non-Certifying Shareholders (whether on a poll or on a written resolution) “for” and “against” the relevant Shareholder Resolution when added to the number of votes withheld by Non-Certifying Shareholders in respect of such resolution, exceeds “D”, then the number of: (a) votes cast “for”; (b) votes cast “against”; and (c) votes withheld in respect of, such resolution by Non-Certifying Shareholders, will each be reduced pro rata until the aggregate number of votes “for”, votes “against” and votes withheld in respect of such resolution by Non-Certifying Shareholders, is the whole number nearest to but not exceeding “D”. Where the aggregate number of votes actually cast (whether on a poll or on a written resolution) and votes withheld, in each case by Non-Certifying Shareholders, is equal to or less than “D”, then each of such votes or votes withheld (as applicable) shall be counted and no reduction shall occur.

For the purposes of the foregoing:

The proxy must be executed by the Registered Shareholder, or if the applicable shareholder is a corporation, the proxy should be signed in its corporate name and its corporate seal must be affixed to the proxy or the proxy must be signed by an authorized officer whose title should be indicated. A proxy signed by an authorized officer or a person acting as attorney, executor, administrator or trustee, or in some other representative capacity, should reflect such

If you are a GDHL shareholder and have questions about the Meeting or the Proposals, or if you need additional copies of this prospectus or the enclosed proxy, you should contact:

You may also obtain additional information about us from documents filed with Canadian securities regulatory authorities by following the instructions in the section of this prospectus entitled “Where You Can Find More Information.”

To obtain timely delivery, GDHL shareholders must request additional copies of this prospectus or the enclosed proxy or any other materials no later than five business days prior to the Meeting.

Subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, GDHL is proposing a reorganization and domestication of GDHL and GDH LP. In summary, under the proposed terms of the Reorganization, among other things:

Subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, among other transactions, GDHL expects to deregister under the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) and domesticate under Section 388 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, pursuant to which domestication the jurisdiction of incorporation for GDHL will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (which is referred to as the “Domestication” and GDHL following the Domestication is referred to as “GDH Delaware”).

In the Domestication, all of the issued and outstanding Class A ordinary shares of GDHL will convert, automatically and by operation of law without redemption or cancellation, on a one-for-one basis into an equivalent number of shares of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware and GDH Delaware will, pursuant to its post-

Pursuant to the Domestication, GDHL will continue and re-domicile as a Delaware entity. To effect the Domestication, GDHL will file a director declaration in respect of GDHL with the Cayman Islands Registrar of Companies, together with the necessary accompanying documents, and will file a certificate of domestication and a certificate of incorporation with the Secretary of State of the State of Delaware, pursuant to which the jurisdiction of incorporation of GDHL will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware.

GDHL is currently governed by the Cayman Islands Companies Act, but upon the completion of the Domestication, GDH Delaware will be governed by the DGCL. Accordingly, GDHL shareholders are urged to carefully consult the information set forth in the section entitled “The Proposed Transactions—The Reorganization—The Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment.”

GDHL shareholders are being asked to consider and vote upon the Domestication pursuant to the Domestication Proposal.

Pursuant to the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, Pubco is registering shares of Pubco Class A common stock issuable to GDHL shareholders upon completion of the Domestication (in which GDHL shareholders’ ordinary shares of GDHL will automatically and by operation of law, on a one-for-one basis into an equivalent number of shares of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware) and the Reorganization Merger (in which each share of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware will further convert, automatically and by operation of law, on a one-for-one basis into one share of Class A common stock of Pubco).

Subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, the Domestication will occur on the business day prior to the date of the Reorganization Merger.

Prior to the Domestication, GDHL expects to amend its existing memorandum and articles of association to authorize and provide for the issuance and terms of up to 500 million Class B ordinary shares of GDHL, which is referred to as the “Governing Documents Amendment.”

GDHL shareholders are being asked to consider and vote upon the Governing Documents Amendment.

The Governing Documents Amendment will occur immediately prior to the Domestication.

In connection with the Domestication, the memorandum and articles of association of GDHL (as amended by the Governing Documents Amendment) (which are referred to as the “Existing Organizational Documents”) will be amended and restated by their deletion in their entirety and the substitution in their place of the proposed new certificate of incorporation, substantially in the form attached to this prospectus as Annex B, and the proposed new bylaws, substantially in the form attached to this prospectus as Annex C (which proposed certificate of incorporation and proposed bylaws are referred to as the “Proposed Organizational Documents,” and such amendment and restatement is referred to the “Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment”).

Subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders of the Domestication and the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment, GDH Delaware will adopt the Proposed Organizational Documents upon the effectiveness of the Domestication, and the Proposed Organizational Documents will be substantively identical to the governing documents of Pubco that will be in effect following the Reorganization Merger. The Proposed Organizational Documents will authorize the issuance of two classes of common stock of GDH Delaware prior to the Reorganization Merger and of Pubco following the Reorganization Merger: Class A common stock and Class B common stock. Each share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (prior to the Reorganization Merger) and Pubco (following the Reorganization Merger) will entitle its holder to one vote per

If the Domestication and the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment are approved by GDHL shareholders and effectuated then, following the Domestication, GDHL’s affairs will no longer be governed by Existing Organizational Documents under the Cayman Islands Companies Act, but rather GDH Delaware’s affairs will be governed by the Proposed Organizational Documents under the DGCL. The Proposed Organizational Documents will consist of a certificate of incorporation substantially in the form attached to this prospectus as Annex B (the “Proposed Charter”) and bylaws substantially in the form attached to this prospectus as Annex C (the “Proposed Bylaws”).

In the Reorganization Merger, the certificate of incorporation and bylaws of Pubco will be amended and restated to be substantively identical to the Proposed Organizational Documents (and the term “Proposed Organizational Documents” shall refer, following the Reorganization Merger, to the certificate of incorporation and bylaws of Pubco as so amended). As a result of and following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, Pubco will succeed GDHL as the publicly traded company.

GDHL is currently an exempted company incorporated under the Cayman Islands Companies Act. (As Revised) The Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) differs in some material respects from laws generally applicable to United States corporations and their stockholders. In addition, the Existing Organizational Documents differ in certain material respects from the Proposed Organizational Documents. Set forth below is a summary chart outlining important similarities and differences in the corporate governance and shareholder rights associated with each of GDHL and GDH Delaware (and, following the Reorganization Merger, Pubco) according to applicable law and/or the Existing Organizational Documents and the Proposed Organizational Documents. You should also carefully review the Proposed Organizational Documents attached to this prospectus as Annexes B and C, as well as the DGCL and corporate laws of the Cayman Islands, including the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised), to understand how these laws apply to GDHL, GDH Delaware and Pubco.

The Existing Organizational Documents, which govern GDHL’s affairs under the Cayman Islands Companies Act (As Revised) differ materially from the Proposed Organizational Documents, which will govern GDH Delaware’s affairs under the DGCL. Accordingly, GDHL shareholders are being asked to approve four separate proposals with respect to certain material differences between the Existing Organizational Documents and the Proposed Organizational Documents, which are referred to as the “Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences.” A summary of each of the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences Proposals is set forth below. These summaries are qualified in their entirety by reference to the complete text of the Proposed Organizational Documents.

GDHL shareholders are being asked to consider and vote upon the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment and the Domestication Charter and Bylaws Differences.

The Domestication Charter and Bylaws Amendment will occur concurrently with the Domestication.

Following the Domestication but immediately prior to the Reorganization Merger, subject to the approval of GDHL shareholders, GDH Delaware expects to issue a number of shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (which shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware will convert automatically and by operation of law on a one-for-one basis into shares of Class B common stock of Pubco in the Reorganization Merger) to each existing limited partner of GDH LP (which is referred to as an “Existing LP”) holding Class B Units of GDH LP equal to the number of Class B Units of GDH LP held by each such Existing LP immediately following the Domestication (which issuance is referred to as the “Issuance of Class B Common Stock”).

The shares of Class B common stock of Pubco into which the shares of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware issued in the Issuance of Class B Common Stock will convert in the Reorganization Merger will not represent any economic interest in GDH Delaware or Pubco, and will solely represent voting interests in Pubco (with each Existing LP continuing to hold their economic interest in GDH LP directly by virtue of their ownership of LP Units, into which the Class B Units of GDH LP will convert by operation of law upon consummation of the Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP). Each holder of a share of Class B common stock of GDH Delaware (and, following the Reorganization Merger, Pubco) will be entitled to one vote per share, and will vote together with holders of shares of Class A common stock on all matters submitted to a vote of holders of GDH Delaware (and, following the Reorganization Merger, Pubco) common stock. See the section entitled “Description of Pubco Capital Stock.”

GDHL shareholders, excluding persons required to be excluded for the purpose of such vote under Multilateral Instrument 61-101—Protection of Minority Security Holders in Special Transaction (which is referred to as “MI 61-101”), are being asked to consider and vote upon the Issuance of Class B Common Stock.

The Issuance of the Class B common stock of GDH Delaware to each Existing LP holding Class B Units of GDH LP is a “related party transaction” for the purposes of MI 61-101. The issuance of such stock must be approved by a resolution passed by simple majority, excluding persons required to be excluded for the purpose of such under MI 61-101. The Issuance of Class B Common Stock will occur immediately following the Domestication.

Among other transactions, following the Reorganization, GDH Delaware will merge with and into Pubco, an entity solely for the purpose of consummating the transactions described in this registration statement and that does not have any assets or operations, with Pubco continuing as the surviving entity, which merger is referred to as the “Reorganization Merger.” In the Reorganization Merger, each share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of GDH Delaware outstanding as of immediately prior to the Reorganization Merger will convert, automatically and by operation of law, on a one-for-one basis into one share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of Pubco, respectively. Additionally, in the Reorganization Merger, the certificate of incorporation and bylaws of Pubco will be amended and restated to be substantively identical to the Proposed Organizational Documents (and the term “Proposed Organizational Documents” shall refer, following the Reorganization Merger, to the certificate of incorporation and bylaws of Pubco as so amended). Following the Reorganization Merger, each share of Class A common stock and Class B common stock of Pubco will entitle its holder to one vote per share on all matters submitted to a vote of Pubco stockholders. Shares of Class B common stock of Pubco will not have any rights to receive dividends or distributions on liquidation of Pubco (beyond their par value).

As a result of and following the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger, as described in this prospectus, Pubco will succeed GDHL as the publicly traded company in which existing holders of GDHL ordinary shares will own their interests, and all securities being registered pursuant to the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part will be issued by Pubco as the continuing entity following such transactions.

Assuming the Reorganization is approved by GDHL shareholders, the Reorganization Merger is not required to be, and will not be, submitted to a vote of GDHL or GDH Delaware shareholders.

Pursuant to the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, Pubco is registering shares of Pubco Class A common stock issuable to GDHL shareholders upon completion of the Domestication (in which GDHL shareholders’ ordinary shares of GDHL will automatically and by operation of law, on a one-for-one basis into an equivalent number of shares of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware) and the Reorganization Merger (in which each share of Class A common stock of GDH Delaware will further convert, automatically and by operation of law, on a one-for-one basis into one share of Class A common stock of Pubco).

The Reorganization Merger is expected to occur on the day after the Domestication.

Concurrently with the Domestication, GDH LP also expects to deregister under the Cayman Islands Exempted Limited Partnerships Act (As Revised) and domesticate under Section 15-901 of the Delaware Revised Uniform Partnership Act, pursuant to which domestication the jurisdiction of formation for GDH LP will be transferred by way of continuation from the Cayman Islands to the State of Delaware (which is referred to as the “Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP”).

Upon the completion of the Concurrent Domestication of GDH LP, GDH LP will enter into the Amended LP Agreement, pursuant to which all of GDH LP’s Class A Units and Class B Units will be reclassified into a single class of units of GDH LP (“LP Units”). Under the Amended LP Agreement, holders of LP Units (other than us and our wholly-owned subsidiaries), including the Existing LPs, will have the right, from and after the completion of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger (subject to the terms of the Amended LP Agreement), to require GDH LP to redeem all or a portion of their LP Units for, at our election, newly issued shares of Class A common stock of Pubco on a one-for-one basis or a cash payment equal to the volume-weighted average market price of one share of Class A common stock of Pubco for each LP Unit redeemed (subject to customary adjustments, including for stock splits, stock dividends and reclassifications) in accordance with the terms of the Amended LP Agreement. Additionally, in the event of a redemption request from a holder of LP Units, we may, at our option, effect a direct exchange of cash or Class A common stock of Pubco for LP Units in lieu of such a redemption. A corresponding number of shares of Class B common stock of Pubco will be cancelled on a one-for-one basis if we, following a redemption request from a holder of LP Units, redeem or exchange LP Units of such holder pursuant to the terms of the Amended LP Agreement. See “Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions—Amended and restated GDH LP agreement.” Except for transfers to us or to certain permitted transferees pursuant to the Amended LP Agreement, the LP Units and shares of Class B common stock may not be sold, transferred or otherwise disposed of.

GDHL is currently party to a tax receivable agreement with the TRA Parties and, in connection with the Reorganization, Pubco will enter into the Tax Receivable Agreement with the TRA Parties that provides for the payment by us to the TRA Parties of 85% of the amount of cash savings, if any, in U.S. federal, state and local income tax or franchise tax that Pubco actually realizes as a result (i) of any increase in tax basis in GDH LP’s assets resulting from redemptions or exchanges by those holders of LP Units and payments made under the Tax Receivable Agreement, and (ii) deductions in respect of interest with respect to payments made under the Tax Receivable Agreement, as and when such tax benefits are realized. Pubco will be required to make similar payments to GDH LP

GDHL’s ordinary shares are currently listed on the TSX. In connection with the Reorganization, we intend to apply to have Pubco’s Class A common stock approved for listing on the Nasdaq, either concurrently with or subsequent to consummation of the Reorganization and the Reorganization Merger. For a period of time following the consummation of the Reorganization, and immediately following our intended listing on the Nasdaq, we will remain listed on the TSX. Pubco ultimately may choose to delist its shares from the TSX in the future, which would not require further shareholder approval under TSX rules provided an acceptable alternative market exists for Pubco’s Class A common stock. There can be no assurance as to whether such listing and/or delisting will occur on the terms described herein or at all.

GDHL is a reporting issuer in all provinces and territories of Canada and accordingly is subject to requirements of the securities legislation and regulations thereunder of each province and territory of Canada and the rules, instruments, policies and orders of each Securities Regulator made thereunder (which are referred to collectively as “Canadian Securities Laws”), including MI 61-101, which regulates transactions that raise the potential for conflicts of interest. MI 61-101 regulates certain types of transactions to ensure fair treatment of security holders when, in relation to a transaction, there are persons in a position that could cause them to have an actual or reasonably perceived conflict of interest or informational advantage over other security holders.

Pursuant to MI 61-101, if a transaction meets the definition of a “related party transaction” then some of the following may be required: (i) enhanced disclosure in documents sent to security holders, (ii) the approval of security holders excluding, among others, “interested parties” (as defined in MI 61-101), (iii) a formal valuation of the equity securities being acquired, prepared by an independent and qualified valuator, and (iv) an independent committee of the directors of the reporting issuer to carry out specified responsibilities. The security holder protections provided by MI 61-101 go substantially beyond the requirements of corporate law. The issuance by GDH Delaware (and, in the Reorganization Merger, Pubco) of shares of Class B common stock to our Founder, the directors and senior officers of GDHL and the managers of and senior officers of GDH GP who hold Class B Units of GDH LP is a “related party transaction” pursuant to MI 61-101. The Reorganization Merger is not a “business combination” pursuant to MI 61-101.

GDHL’s board of directors formed the Special Committee to consider the Reorganization. The Special Committee retained independent counsel, Fasken Martineau DuMoulin LLP (which is referred to as “Fasken”), Jenner & Block LLP (which is referred to as “Jenner”) and an independent financial advisor, Echelon Wealth Partners (which is referred to as “Echelon”). In consultation with these advisors, GDHL’s board of directors, upon the recommendation of the Special Committee, determined that the fair market value of the subject matter of the transaction and the consideration for the transaction is not readily determinable as there is no market to determine the fair market value of the voting rights exchanged in the proposed Reorganization. Notwithstanding this determination, GDHL’s board of directors, acting in good faith and based on the recommendation of the Special Committee with the input from its independent financial and legal advisors, concluded that neither the fair market value of the subject matter of the transaction nor the consideration for the transaction exceeds 25% of the market capitalization of GDHL. The subject matter of the related party transaction is the transfer of control of the general partnership interests of GDH LP from GDH GP and, indirectly, GGI (a company controlled by our Founder) to GDH Delaware (and ultimately to Pubco following the Reorganization Merger). GDH LP is the operating entity of GDHL and, currently, GDHL has a minority noncontrolling interest in GDH LP. The consideration for the Founder ultimately transferring control of the general partnership interests of GDH LP from GDH GP to Pubco is the issuance of Class B common stock of Pubco (with no economic interest) that gives our Founder (i) the same control over Pubco that he would have upon conversion of his existing Class B Units of GDH LP into ordinary shares of GDH LP and (ii) the same control over GDH LP he has now but through Pubco rather than through GDH GP. There are no economic rights associated with the Class B common stock that are to be issued to our Founder. Under our current structure, our Founder has no control over GDHL but has complete control over GDH LP. Following the

The Reorganization does not involve a purchase of securities to effect a change of control. The transaction is simply a reorganization of the corporate and capital structure that effects a transfer of control from a subsidiary operating entity level to a parent holding company level but does not involve a transfer of any economic or other rights of the parties. There is no recognized (non-arbitrary) manner or market by which to value the fair market value of the voting control of a holding company that is separate and apart from its economic value or the fair market value of voting control of an operating entity, which is being exchanged for voting control of the holding company. The financial advisor for the Special Committee considered in detail the value of the subject matter and the consideration to be received as part of the Reorganization. Although there were no precedent transactions directly on point to this transaction and no market whereby the value of standalone voting rights could be determined, the most analogous transactions (although not perfectly analogous) that could provide some insight as to the “potential” value of standalone voting rights involving a collapse of a multiple voting/dual class structure that result in the elimination of the controlling voting rights of such shares but maintains the existing economic rights of the shareholders. Given that the shareholders’ economic rights in these precedent transactions were not compromised (other than by dilution in favor of the multiple voting shareholder) and only the “voting rights” were being eliminated, one basis to consider the value for such “voting rights” was the premium paid in those transactions, with the premium being calculated as the percentage of share ownership issued to the multiple voting shareholder in excess of its current economic ownership (resulting in dilution to the other class of shareholders). In the recent precedent transactions in the Canadian public markets whereby multiple voting/dual class structures were eliminated that included premiums paid to the multiple voting shareholder, premiums ranged from 0.8% to 11.4%, representing even at the anomalous upper extreme far less than 25% of the market capitalization of the target company under section 5.5 of MI 61-101.

GDHL’s board of directors and the Special Committee determined the market capitalization of GDHL pursuant to subsection (a) of its definition under section 1 of MI 61-101 (as a published market exists). Reliance was not placed on any exemptive relief to include the equity value of GDH LP as is the case in typical REIT related party transactions. GDHL’s board of directors did not obtain a third-party valuation or fairness opinion in connection with its determination to approve the Reorganization. GDHL’s officers and directors have substantial experience in evaluating the operating and financial merits of companies from a wide range of industries and concluded that their experience and backgrounds, together with the experience and expertise of GDHL’s advisors, enabled them to make the necessary analyses and determinations regarding the Reorganization.

As a result, GDHL is exempt from the requirements to obtain a formal valuation and obtain “majority of the minority” approval under Sections 5.5(a)(i) and 5.7(a) of MI 61-101. See the section entitled “The Proposed Transactions—The Reorganization—GDHL’s Background to and Reasons for the Reorganization.”

Notwithstanding that no “majority of the minority” approval is required under MI 61-101, the Special Committee and GDHL’s board of directors determined to also seek such approval from GDHL’s shareholders.

As a result, the Issuance of Class B Common Stock Proposal will require the affirmative vote of a majority of the votes attached to GDHL ordinary shares held by GDHL shareholders present in person or virtually or represented by proxy at the Meeting, excluding for this purpose votes attached to GDHL ordinary shares held by (i) GDHL, (ii) “interested parties,” (iii) any “related party” of an “interested party” and (iv) any person that is a “joint actor” (as such terms are defined in MI 61-101) with the foregoing.

Details of such holdings are as follows:

While the Reorganization is intended to normalize GDHL’s corporate and capital structure and align all stakeholders’ interests at the Pubco level, the Issuance of Class B Common Stock is a “related party transaction” pursuant to MI 61-101. GDHL’s board of directors (which is referred to as the “Board”) formed the Special Committee of independent directors, comprised of all the directors of GDHL, other than Michael Novogratz (who is referred to as the “Founder” or “Michael Novogratz”), Damien Vanderwilt, Michael Daffey, Richard Tavoso and Jane Dietze (who was not a director of GDHL when the Special Committee was formed), to consider the Reorganization. The Special Committee retained independent counsel, Fasken and Jenner, and an independent financial advisor, Echelon. The Special Committee met formally in person and by telephone six times from March 12, 2021 until the announcement of the Reorganization and then once more prior to the mailing of the Management Circular. In addition, members of the Special Committee engaged in discussions with each other and with representatives of Citigroup Inc. (which is referred to as “Citi”), Echelon, Jenner and Fasken on numerous other occasions. The following is a summary of the material events, meetings, negotiations and discussions leading up to the public announcement of the Reorganization on May 5, 2021 and thereafter.

The Board from time to time evaluates business alternatives and strategic opportunities available to GDHL as part of its ongoing review and oversight of GDHL’s business, with a view to the best interests of GDHL. As part of this process, the Board has, from time to time, considered a variety of strategic alternatives available to GDHL, including redomiciling GDHL to the United States and normalizing its corporate structure.

In February 2021, management of GDHL began to consider alternatives to achieve a normalized capital structure and to redomicile GDHL from the Cayman Islands to the United States. On February 8, 2021, management of GDHL met with Blake, Cassels & Graydon LLP (which is referred to as “Blakes”), Davis Polk & Wardwell LLP (which is referred to as “Davis Polk”) and Maples Group (which is referred to as “Maples”) to discuss structuring and preliminary considerations for (i) a redomiciling of GDHL from the Cayman Islands to Delaware; (ii) a reorganization of GDHL and GDH LP that would include the holders of Class B Units of GDH LP receiving a new class of common stock of GDH Delaware and (iii) a listing of the shares of Pubco on the Nasdaq.

From February 8, 2021 through February 16, 2021, Davis Polk, Blakes, Maples worked on evaluating the feasibility of the Reorganization.

On February 16, 2021, the Board held a meeting where it discussed the potential acquisition of BitGo. At this meeting, management of GDHL presented on the potential redomiciliation of GDHL from the Cayman Islands to the United States.

From February 16, 2021 through February 26, 2021, Davis Polk, Blakes, Maples continued to work on evaluating the feasibility of the Reorganization.

The Board held a meeting on February 26, 2021. Management of GDHL presented to the Board on the possibility of undertaking the Reorganization. Representatives of Davis Polk and Blakes attended the meeting. Management of GDHL explained to the Board that they were considering a possible Reorganization, which would allow GDHL to redomicile to the State of Delaware, simplify and normalize its capital structure, pursue a U.S. listing and facilitate potential acquisitions. Counsel advised the Board of the duties and responsibilities of the directors in the context of the Reorganization under corporate law. Davis Polk outlined alternatives available to the Board, including continuing GDHL’s current structure (i.e., the status quo). Blakes advised that the possible Reorganization involved restructuring the Class B Units of GDH LP and that Michael Novogratz, a director and the Chief Executive Officer of GDHL, and certain other officers of GDHL are holders of Class B Units of GDH LP and, as a result, portions of the Reorganization would constitute a related party transaction for the purposes of MI 61-101. The Board discussed matters of independence, including possible Special Committee membership considerations in that regard. The Board discussed these alternatives and unanimously agreed that management should continue to pursue the possible Reorganization. The Board agreed to establish the Special Committee, consisting of Bill Koutsouras (Chair), Nereida Flannery, Theagenis Iliadis and Dominic Docherty to: (i) review the proposal made to effect the Reorganization, (ii) evaluate the Reorganization and any other alternatives available to GDHL which may be in the best interests of GDHL, including maintenance of the status quo (each such alternative, a “Potential Alternative”), (iii) oversee any related negotiations, and (iv) make recommendations to the Board respecting the Reorganization or a Potential Alternative. The Special Committee was also given the power to engage independent legal counsel and retain financial and other professional advisors. We note that Nereida Flannery and Theagenis Iliadis did not stand for re-election to the Board of Directors in 2023 and therefore no longer serve on the Special Committee.

From February 26, 2021 through March 12, 2021 management of GDHL, Davis Polk and Blakes continued background work related to the structuring of the possible Reorganization. Management of GDHL kept the Chair of the Special Committee appraised of the work.

The Special Committee held a meeting on March 12, 2021, with representatives of Blakes and Davis Polk in attendance. The Special Committee and those in attendance discussed, among other things, the development of the Special Committee’s mandate, considerations under MI 61-101, and whether to retain independent legal counsel and financial advisor(s) and/or valuator(s). The Special Committee determined that it wished to retain independent counsel and agreed to further consider the foregoing matters further with such counsel. The Special Committee then discussed whether it should request compensation for their service. The Chair of the Special Committee proposed that, at this time and consistent with other committee service, the Special Committee not receive any additional compensation. He added that if the time commitment associated with the Special Committee were to materially increase then they could reconsider this matter. The other members of the Special Committee agreed with the Chair’s proposal.

On March 16, 2021, the Special Committee met and determined to retain Fasken as independent legal counsel.

On March 18, 2021, the Special Committee met with Fasken to discuss the mandate of the Special Committee and review the duties and responsibilities of the members. Fasken outlined the requirements for a “related party transaction” and the process required under MI 61-101 and the steps to the proposed Reorganization were reviewed. Fasken worked with the Chair of the Special Committee to create a list of financial advisors for the Special Committee to consider retaining.

The Chair of the Special Committee and Fasken interviewed a number of prospective financial advisors. On April 18, 2021 the Special Committee retained Echelon as financial advisor in connection with the Reorganization, following confirmation that Echelon qualified as independent.

During March 2021 and early April 2021, management of GDHL and Davis Polk and Blakes continued background work related to the structuring of the possible Reorganization. Management of GDHL kept the Chair of the Special Committee appraised of their work and Blakes and Fasken had numerous communications regarding

On April 9, 2021, the Special Committee met with Fasken to discuss the progress of the Reorganization, draft documentation, key terms of the Reorganization, tax consequences of the possible Reorganization and the possibility of including a staggered board as part of the new governance of Pubco.

On April 14, 2021, the Chair of the Special Committee and Fasken met with Davis Polk and Blakes to discuss, among other matters, the proposed structuring of the possible Reorganization, timing, certain diligence issues, regulatory matters (including TSX rules and approvals), and additional information requested by the Special Committee.

On April 15, 2021, the Special Committee met with Fasken to discuss the progress of the structuring of the possible Reorganization and the additional information the Special Committee required for their deliberations.

Between April 15, 2021 and April 22, 2021, Fasken engaged in discussions with Blakes and Davis Polk in respect of additional information and questions posed by the Special Committee which included review and discussion of the current structure of GDHL and GDH LP and share capital matters, the proposed share terms and governing documents of Pubco following the Reorganization, consents and approvals that may be required, direct and indirect costs of the Reorganization, accounting treatment of the Reorganization, current and proposed governing documents (including proposed shareholder protections following the Reorganization), tax matters and regulatory issues. On April 21, 2021, the Special Committee retained Jenner, as its independent United States counsel, to assist with the review, assessment and comparison of the various governance and shareholder protections under Delaware law.

On April 22, 2021, the Special Committee met and received a presentation from management of GDHL, together with Citi, which is a general financial advisor to GDHL, summarizing the anticipated implications of the Reorganization for Shareholders and other considerations that were mitigating factors, including those described below under the heading “Information and Factors Considered by the Special Committee”. After management of GDHL and Citi left the meeting, the Special Committee discussed these matters with its independent advisors.

From April 22, 2021 to April 27, 2021, management of GDHL engaged in discussions with the Chair of the Special Committee in order to keep the Special Committee updated with timing and process.

On April 27, 2021, the Special Committee met to discuss the Reorganization and whether the Special Committee would recommend the Board approve the Reorganization, subject to certain conditions and requirements. The Special Committee discussed at length the advice of its independent financial and legal advisors, the review and finding of the existing constating documents of GDHL and GDH LP and the structure under the proposed Reorganization, the general tax implications, the benefits and disadvantages to the Minority Shareholders and considered the increased litigation and insurance costs of a United States domiciled company. The Special Committee considered Potential Alternatives, including maintaining the status quo, collapsing the current operating subsidiary held by a public holding company structure through the conversion of GDH LP units into Ordinary Shares and a reorganization without a redomicilation to Delaware.

On April 29, 2021, counsel at Fasken contacted counsel at Blakes and advised that the Special Committee would require the following if it were to support the proposed Reorganization:

On May 2, 2021, the Board met to discuss the Reorganization and the Special Committee delivered its recommendations to the Board. The Chair of the Special Committee noted that the mandate and purpose of the Special Committee was to evaluate the proposed Reorganization and act as a procedural safeguard to ensure that key decisions are made by directors whose judgment is, and is perceived to be, free of conflicts. He shared with the Board the Special Committee’s process, including, among other things, holding six meetings, hiring independent counsel and an independent financial advisor and reviewing the benefits and disadvantages of the proposed Reorganization to the Minority Shareholders and to GDHL. The Chair of the Special Committee noted that, in addition to considering the terms of the proposed Reorganization, the Special Committee considered whether the fair market value of the securities to be issued to interested parties (as defined in MI 61-101) and the consideration to be received by GDHL is not readily determinable, and in such case whether such fair market value is less than 25% of the market capitalization of GDHL, both of which are important determinations relating to whether GDHL must obtain a formal valuation under certain Canadian Securities Law requirements. The Chair of the Special Committee outlined the framework that the independent financial advisor prepared for the Special Committee to assist it in making these determinations. The Chair of the Special Committee advised that the Special Committee, after taking into account legal and financial advice, had determined that GDHL may rely upon an exemption from the valuation requirements for the Reorganization as the fair market value of the securities to be issued to interested parties and the consideration to be received by GDHL is: (i) not readily determinable, and (ii) the Special Committee acting in good faith has determined that each such fair market value is less than 25% of the market capitalization of GDHL. The Chair of the Special Committee then conveyed the Special Committee’s recommendations to the Board that the proposed Reorganization is (i) fair to the Minority Shareholders and (ii) in the best interest of GDHL, and that the Board should approve the proposed Reorganization. He also noted that the recommendation is based on the conditions communicated on April 29, 2021.

Following receipt of the recommendations of the Special Committee, Michael Novogratz declared an interest in the proposed resolutions of the Board in respect of the Reorganization and abstained from the vote. Based on the unanimous recommendations of the Special Committee and after full discussion and deliberation and after review of the terms and conditions of the Reorganization:

The potential acquisition of BitGo was also discussed and approved at the May 2, 2021 Board meeting. The completion of the Reorganization was never conditioned on the completion of the potential acquisition of BitGo, although completing the acquisition of the BitGo would have been conditioned on the Reorganization being completed. The Board noted that this was one of the advantages of the Reorganization: the Reorganization, including the Domestication, would ultimately make Pubco’s shares attractive as consideration in acquisitions.

On May 5, 2021, immediately following final resolution of the outstanding matters by management of GDHL and review and approval by the Special Committee, the Reorganization was announced.

On March 30, 2022, GDHL and BitGo entered into an amendment and restatement of the original acquisition agreement with respect to the potential acquisition of BitGo entered into on May 5, 2021. This amendment and restatement, among other things, evidenced an extension to December 31, 2022 of the “end date” after which either GDHL or BitGo can terminate such acquisition agreement if the potential acquisition of BitGo contemplated thereby was not completed by such date. This “end date” was, under the terms of such amended and restated acquisition agreement, automatically further extended until March 31, 2023 as a result of BitGo not delivering to GDHL a compliant copy of BitGo’s 2021 audited financial statements by April 30, 2022 in accordance with the terms of the acquisition agreement. The amended and restated acquisition agreement also provided GDHL with the right to terminate the acquisition agreement if BitGo did not deliver such financial statements to GDHL by July 31, 2022.

On August 15, 2022, GDHL announced that it had terminated the acquisition agreement with BitGo in accordance with its terms, but still intended to complete the Reorganization, including the Domestication.

During September 2022 and early October 2022, management of GDHL and its external advisors considered the structure of the Reorganization in light of the termination of the potential acquisition of BitGo and proposed certain changes to reduce the complexity of the Reorganization and simplify the legal structure of Pubco.

Between October 3, 2022 and October 8, 2022, Fasken engaged in discussions with Blakes and Davis Polk in respect of the changes to the structure of the Reorganization.

On October 12, 2022, the Special Committee met with its legal and financial advisors in attendance to discuss the changes to the structure to the Reorganization. The Special Committee concluded that the changes to the structure did not affect their analysis of the transactions or alter their previous recommendation to the Board.

In determining that the Reorganization is in the best interests of GDHL and fair to Minority Shareholders, and in making its recommendations to Board, the Special Committee undertook a thorough review of, and carefully considered, the terms of the Reorganization, received the advice of Echelon and Fasken and considered a number of factors. In view of the variety of factors and the amount of information considered in connection with the Special Committee’s evaluation of the Reorganization, the Special Committee did not find it practicable to, and did not, quantify or otherwise attempt to assign any relative weight to each of the specific factors considered in reaching its determination and recommendation. The Special Committee’s determination and recommendation is based upon the totality of the information presented and considered by it. The determination and recommendation of the Special Committee were made after consideration of the factors noted herein, other factors and in light of the Special Committee’s knowledge of the business, financial condition and prospects of GDHL and considering the advice of the Special Committee’s financial, legal and other advisors. Individual members of the Special Committee may have assigned different weights to different factors. The factors considered include the following:

The Special Committee also considered numerous uncertainties, risks and other potential negative factors associated with the Reorganization, including, among others, the following:

The foregoing summary of the information and factors considered by Special Committee in making its recommendations to GDHL’s board of directors is not intended to be exhaustive but includes the material information and factors considered by Special Committee in its consideration of the Reorganization.

The Special Committee unanimously determined that the proposed Reorganization is (i) fair to the Minority Shareholders and (ii) in the best interest of GDHL, and that GDHL’s board of directors should approve the proposed Reorganization.

Galaxy is a digital asset and blockchain leader providing a diversified client base, including institutions and Qualified Individuals (as defined herein), access to the growing digital economy. Our full suite of services spans three complementary operating businesses: Global Markets, Asset Management, and Digital Infrastructure Solutions.

Our mission is to engineer a new economic paradigm. At Galaxy, we are connecting financial expertise with technological sophistication, institutions with Web3 innovations, and Silicon Valley agility with Wall Street savvy.

We are capitalizing on market opportunities made possible by the rapid evolution of the digital assets ecosystem. We have assembled a diverse, multi-disciplinary team that balances extensive experience throughout the legacy financial services industry with a deep appreciation for the most important aspects of the emerging digital asset and blockchain industry, namely technological innovation, purpose, and community.

As bitcoin increased in popularity, the idea of decentralized and encrypted currencies spread and the first alternative cryptocurrencies began to appear. These altcoins generally tried to improve on the original Bitcoin design by offering greater speed, lower transaction costs, or some other advantage. Among the first to emerge were Namecoin and Litecoin. Later, blockchain usage began to expand beyond the peer-to-peer currency functions to decentralized financial applications, smart contracts and digital art (via NFTs), among others.

The second largest public blockchain protocol, Ethereum, debuted in 2015 and became the first large scale network for decentralized computing and smart contract functionality. The Ethereum network supports the creation of persistent, autonomous software which gives developers the ability to build open, decentralized applications accessible to the public. This generalized, distributed computing capability has enabled the rise of “tokenization” (the process of digitally representing real-world value or information), digitally enforceable agreements, and automated functions.

We see the world of tokenization as split into fungible and non-fungible assets. When we say two or more items are fungible, we generally mean that they are interchangeable, so that a seller can deliver either item to a purchaser, and the purchaser is obligated to accept either in satisfaction of a contractual sale and purchase obligation. As an example, money is fungible whereas artwork is not. Native digital assets, like bitcoin and Ether, are fungible but do not represent the use of “tokenization,” as their value is not derived from representing another asset.

While many uses for tokenization exist (including equity shares, coupons, monies), the clearest functioning use of non-native fungible tokens today is the stablecoin. A stablecoin is a digital asset designed to have a relatively stable price that aligns with the price of an underlying asset, most commonly a fiat currency, such as U.S. dollars, or an exchange-traded commodity. While stablecoins are not issued by central governments, and are not legal tender, they are intended to allow fiat currencies to transact on a blockchain by combining the features of a digital asset with the stability of an underlying fiat currency. The stability of a stablecoin results from the underlying assets backing the stablecoin that are held by the stablecoin's issuer in segregated or omnibus accounts, among other factors such as the ability of a holder to redeem the stablecoin from its issuer for the underlying asset. See “Information About Galaxy—The Cryptoeconomy—Tokenization—Stablecoins” for additional information.

Assets that are non-fungible are those that are not perfectly interchangeable, such as artwork, real estate, identity, or bespoke contracts. NFTs are digital tokens that represent unique items. While many use cases for NFTs exist, digital collectibles have gained traction as the most common exhibition of the technology. Despite a

A significant use case for digital assets has emerged in the form of DeFi. DeFi refers to a variety of blockchain-based applications or protocols that provide for peer-to-peer financial services using smart contracts and other technology reducing the need for the traditional intermediaries, such as banks, brokers or marketplace operators. In many cases, DeFi protocols remove intermediaries and hand control of their upgrades and features to users themselves, through a governance process in which token holders vote on important issues. The benefits of DeFi include increased efficiency and speed for flow of capital, reduced costs for all parties and curtailed human biases, via activities governed by data analysis. Galaxy’s most common uses of DeFi protocols so far are lending and borrowing transactions.

DeFi protocols emerged in 2017 with the use of cryptocurrency for lending and borrowing. Platforms such as MakerDAO were among the first platforms to enable the scaled use of cryptocurrency as collateral for financial arrangements. DeFi’s adoption accelerated during 2020, as platform growth and adoption of cryptocurrencies expanded access to capital for users. This also reduced the need to move funds out of the ecosystem (given availability of financing arrangements to support liquidity needs). In the years since, DeFi protocols have become more sophisticated and adoption has grown. Uniswap has become the world’s largest decentralized trading venue, with more than $800 million in daily trading volume as of April 2024. Additionally, as of May 8, 2024, Aave, one of the largest decentralized lending protocols, had more than $15.9 billion in available liquidity.

The cryptoeconomy experienced rapid growth in 2021 driven by the simultaneous widespread adoption of digital assets, expanded use of cryptocurrencies and broader blockchain innovations including DeFi and the growth of NFTs as a prominent form of tokenization. After a retreat in 2022, cryptocurrency markets rallied in 2023 through the first quarter of 2024. The initially retail-driven adoption of cryptocurrencies has evolved to include institutional holders, utilizing digital assets as both a store of value and for commercial applications. The lead up to the launch of the spot-based Bitcoin ETFs in the U.S. in early 2024 provided a boost to bitcoin.

Until recently, the industry lacked the market infrastructure typically associated with modern finance—particularly institutional custody, clearing, and lending—rendering it primarily a retail phenomenon. The industry has matured significantly, enabling the entrance of major institutional and corporate investors. The advancement of decentralized finance applications built on Ethereum and other public blockchains has continued. Their resilience in the face of significant deleveraging in 2022 highlighted their ability to add transparency and efficiency to financial markets. Traditional financial players have taken notice, with most major brokerages, asset managers and investment banks accelerating their investment in, and adoption of, digital assets and blockchain technologies.

The 2023 rebound in digital asset values followed a tumultuous 2022 which featured monetary tightening from many of the world’s central banks to address high inflation. The Federal Reserve's Federal Funds Rate remains over 5% after steadily rising throughout 2022 and the first half of 2023. Consumer Price Index ("CPI") inflation remains high, which has tempered expectations as to the timing of eventual rate cuts and lead to market uncertainty over the near-term future for risk assets. In addition, geopolitical tensions could lead to further unexpected outcomes, which in turn spur volatility across financial markets, including crypto.

The downturn in 2022 exerted pressure on crypto-native protocols and companies, exposing unsustainable designs and business models. Several centralized crypto lending firms became undercollateralized and eventually insolvent, leading to losses for investors and customers of these businesses. The founder and former CEO of FTX was found guilty on federal charges of fraud, conspiracy, and money laundering in November 2023. In November 2022, FTX.com filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection after halting client withdrawals. The insolvency and bankruptcy of FTX, which was one of the world’s largest digital asset trading platforms at the time, caused meaningful declines in digital asset prices, sending bitcoin and Ether to new annual lows. The unwinding of the crypto credit ecosystem led to deleveraging and a low liquidity environment, placing additional downward

The dislocation of the crypto-industry slowed Galaxy’s lending and trading activities in 2022 and the first nine months of 2023 compared to 2021. The Company had a net loss of approximately $68 million in 2022 related to its FTX exposure. A portion of Galaxy’s 2022 FTX exposure loss was subsequently recovered in 2023 through gains on purchased claims to the FTX bankruptcy estate which were sold in the first quarter of 2024. The Company also recorded a 100% allowance for the small uncollateralized portion of its loan to Three Arrows Capital in the first half of 2022.

While the collapse of several major cryptocurrency companies in 2022 and the arrest of several executives created uncertainty and contributed to a tenuous environment for markets, 2023 saw a notable uptick in sentiment and volume. Bitcoin was up 155.4% and Ether was up 90.6% for the year ended December 31, 2023. Catalysts for recent movements in digital asset markets include the launch of spot-based bitcoin ETFs, the outcomes of certain litigation matters and resolution of bankruptcies. Bitcoin’s fourth halving took place in April 2024. Although past results are not necessarily indicative of future outcomes, this quadrennial scarcity event where bitcoin’s issuance rate halves has historically preceded major bull runs. Increasing regulatory clarity, whether achieved through litigation outcomes or Congressional action could also provide an additional catalyst to propel digital asset prices higher.

Increasing regulatory clarity from global regulatory bodies has made it easier for individuals and institutional investors to participate in the digital assets ecosystem. The Company expects additional regulatory clarity to emerge in the next few years with the United States government formally working to develop national policies for the asset class, particularly following President Biden’s issuance of the “Executive Order on Ensuring Responsible Development of Digital Assets” in 2022, which specified a broad review of digital assets and cryptocurrencies by various U.S. government agencies. Advancement of the European Union’s Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) regulation through the European Council represents the vanguard of complex regulatory clarity for digital assets and its final passage by the EU Commission should be a boon for digital asset infrastructure on the continent. MiCA regulation is expected to go into effect in 2024. In the wake of FTX’s collapse and geopolitical events, we believe that the increased scrutiny on digital asset markets by policymakers makes it more likely that new legislation or rule making will be implemented by U.S. regulators. New regulation seeking to reduce the use of cryptocurrencies for illicit finance may be enacted, which could force adjustments within the industry, although the likelihood of comprehensive legislation being implemented in the near term remains somewhat muted given that the two houses of Congress are controlled by different parties.

Indeed, new technologies, companies, and uses for public blockchains continue to emerge. These advances are expected to lead to wider adoption of digital assets. In turn, growing interest and adoption may lead to increased volumes and prices, which should benefit all of our businesses. On a daily basis, the trading business and the Company’s short- and long-term positioning of its portfolio may benefit the most from these advances as their success will increase the volume and value of digital assets traded.

The Company believes that in the long run bitcoin has the potential to become a safe-haven, hard money asset (and that in its current state has all the requisite elements to do so). We believe that the broader digital assets market has significant upside potential, with new opportunities emerging in payments, finance, art, collectibles, gaming and the Metaverse. Nonetheless, shifting risk sentiment will continue to impact the digital assets markets in the near term.

The operations of GK8, a developer of secure technology solutions for self-custody of digital assets, acquired by Galaxy in February 2023, are headquartered in Israel with its primary office located in Tel Aviv which includes more than 40 Galaxy employees. GK8 is included in the Digital Infrastructure Solutions segment. There has been no material impact from the ongoing conflict on the Company's operations in the region. Galaxy management is monitoring the situation.

The Company manages and reports its activities in the following operating businesses: Global Markets, Asset Management and Digital Infrastructure Solutions. In the first quarter of 2023, the Company began managing and reporting activities in these three operating businesses consistent with changes in our operations, from organic growth and recent acquisitions, and our management structure. Prior periods are presented on a comparable basis. In determining the Company’s segment structure, the Company considered the basis on which the chief operating decision-maker, as well as other members of senior management, review the financial and operational performance of the Company. The primary changes made are as follows:

Refer to Note 23 of the Company's consolidated annual financial statements for further information on reportable segments.

Galaxy Global Markets (‘‘GGM’’), provides comprehensive financial products and services to a diversified client base, including institutions and Qualified Individuals, within the digital asset ecosystem. GGM offers institutional-grade expertise and access to a broad range of digital asset products, including digital asset trading, derivatives, structured products, financing, capital markets and M&A advisory services.

GGM currently operates as two discrete businesses - Trading and Investment Banking.

Our asset management business, Galaxy Asset Management (‘‘GAM’’), is a global asset management platform providing investors access to the digital asset ecosystem via a diverse suite of institutional-grade investment vehicles that span passive, active and venture strategies.

GAM managed $5.2 billion in assets across a dozen investment strategies as of December 31, 2023, up from nearly $1.7 billion as of December 31, 2022, an increase of 203% year-over year. Of the $5.2 billion of assets under management (“AUM”), $2.1 billion represented new engagements managed by GAM to unwind portfolios. Excluding these opportunistic assets, GAM’s AUM grew 81% to $3.1 billion in 2023, driven by $1.0 billion of gross inflows and $0.7 billion net market appreciation, partially offset by $0.3 billion of gross outflows. The business is strategically focused on scaling our active and venture investments, while leveraging a regional partnership model with premiere local managers around the world, to expand our global product reach.

GAM utilizes third party Qualified Custodians to maintain and safeguard client assets, which are segregated from the assets of the custodians. Where possible, as a further risk mitigation tool, GAM employs a multi-custodial model for fund assets and requires insurance from our custody providers. GAM leverages Big Four audit firms to audit our funds and utilizes independent, unaffiliated fund administrators for all our funds.

Our mining, self-custody technology and validator solutions businesses, Galaxy Digital Infrastructure Solutions (“GDIS”), develop, operate, and invest in technology that powers the digital assets ecosystem, with a focus on scalability and security.

Galaxy’s mining business, (“Mining”), is strategically focused on growing its capacity for both proprietary and hosted bitcoin mining across North America with a target Hashrate Under Management (“HUM”) of over 6 exahash by the end of the third quarter 2024. Galaxy aims to continuously mine bitcoin well below its fair market value, grow recurring hosting fees, and focus on energy and software management. The majority of both proprietary and hosted bitcoin mining occurs at our main site, Helios, in West Texas. The infrastructure at Helios can support 180 megawatts (“MW”) of mining operating capacity; and in early 2023, we received approvals to scale up to a mining capacity of 800MW at the Helios site.

Galaxy is also focused on various emerging areas of blockchain infrastructure, including supporting the integrity of protocols and ecosystem projects by operating validator nodes to secure blockchains, and by offering self-custody technology solutions to institutions through GK8. In addition, Galaxy operates public mainnet infrastructure for transaction validation services in the form of validator nodes spanning protocols including Ethereum, Solana, Celestia, Akash and Sui, among others, enabling digital asset holders to secure Proof of Stake networks, participate in consensus, and earn staking rewards. Galaxy’s self-custody technology solution, which we operate through Galaxy GDS Crypto Technologies Israel Ltd, comprises the assets of GK8 acquired in February 2023. GK8 licenses self-custody software technology to customers that allows customers to generate and store the private keys to their digital assets, as well as to generate multi-signature backup keys, in a secure cold storage vault. The market opportunity for GK8's custodial technology continues to expand rapidly as more and more institutions seek to manage and hold their own digital assets. GK8’s target client segment includes custodians, banks, broker-dealers and trust companies.

We are operating in a new industry that is highly innovative, rapidly evolving and characterized by healthy competition, experimentation, changing customer needs, and the frequent introduction of new products and services. It is subject to uncertain and evolving industry and regulatory requirements. Our business model is largely dependent on digital assets and the broader cryptoeconomy. Our operating results have and will continue to fluctuate due to a variety of factors, including the highly volatile nature of cryptocurrencies. While we believe we are well-positioned to capitalize on market opportunities made possible by the rapid evolution of the digital assets ecosystem, due to the relatively nascent stage of our industry and other challenges that we face, our business model also presents certain material risks. For a further discussion of these risks, see “Risk Factors—Risks Related to our Operations” in this prospectus.

All participants in the cryptoeconomy, including direct investors, consumers and providers of goods and services related to this industry, may be subject to additional costs associated with participating in this industry, as compared with participation in established commerce, due to the rapidly evolving landscape. The potentially higher costs associated with the cryptoeconomy include, but are not limited to, elevated legal and financial advisory fees, use of significant resources to monitor and maintain compliance with applicable laws and regulations, as well as elevated and unpredictable costs of custody, transactions, insurance and theft. Other material risks specific to this industry include a lack of adoption or acceptance of digital assets and blockchain technology, the volatile prices of digital assets, exposure to malicious actors and platform vulnerabilities, and

We’ve constructed our business around three core pillars:

We focus primarily on the digital assets industry, leveraging our leadership’s more than 10 years of cryptocurrency investing experience to develop, deploy, and support innovative products and services for institutions participating in the cryptoeconomy. We have established strong brand recognition from both the crypto-native community and traditional institutional leaders.

We apply a compliance-first mindset to our business by focusing on embedding all of our products and operational processes with robust recordkeeping and risk management. We have structured our businesses to move quickly while operating an institutional-grade compliance infrastructure that our clients have come to expect. This has enabled our businesses to provide reliable service through varied market conditions.

We continuously evolve with the broader digital assets ecosystem and aim to maintain a “crypto-blue-chip” leadership team comprised of veterans from Wall Street and Silicon Valley. Our existing team consists of experts spanning the capital markets, asset management, technology, investing and venture capital businesses.

Galaxy is diversified across both institutional client-focused operational business lines and direct investments in the digital asset ecosystem, which helps ensure we are well-positioned to benefit from innovations and developments as the ecosystem grows and matures.

Adjusted net income/(loss) is a non-GAAP financial measure that is used by management, in addition to GAAP financial measures, to understand and compare our operating results across accounting periods, for risk management and operational decision-making. This non-GAAP measure provides investors with additional information in evaluating the Company’s operating performance.

This non-GAAP financial measure has been prepared by, and is the responsibility of, Galaxy’s management, and has not been audited or reviewed by our independent registered public accounting firm. You should not place undue reliance on this non-GAAP financial measure.

Adjusted net income/(loss) represents net income/(loss) attributable to our unit holders’ interests adjusted to add back certain non-cash items and non-recurring costs.

Adjusted net income/(loss) does not have any standardized meaning prescribed by GAAP and may not be comparable to similar measures presented by other companies in our industry.

The growth and success of our business as well as our financial condition and operating results have been, and will continue to be affected by a number of factors, including:

Values of digital assets have been highly volatile. Effects from speculation regarding the future appreciation or depreciation in the value of digital assets, making their market prices more volatile, may materially and adversely affect the value of our cryptocurrency and other digital asset inventory. Changing investor confidence and resultant fluctuations in the price of various cryptocurrencies may cause uncertainty in the market and could negatively impact trading volumes of cryptocurrencies, which would negatively impact our business and operating results.

The cryptoeconomy experienced rapid growth in 2021 driven by the simultaneous widespread adoption of digital assets, expanded use of cryptocurrencies and broader blockchain innovations including DeFi and the growth of NFTs as a prominent form of tokenization. After a retreat in 2022, cryptocurrency markets rallied in 2023 through the first quarter of 2024. The initially retail-driven adoption of cryptocurrencies has evolved to include institutional holders, utilizing digital assets as both a store of value and for commercial applications. The lead up to the launch of the spot-based Bitcoin ETFs in the U.S. in early 2024 provided a boost to bitcoin. According to the Crypto Market Sizing Report released by Crypto.com, the number of world wide individual cryptocurrency users was 580 million as of December 2023, up from 516 million in June 2023. Moreover, Bitcoin’s trailing five-year compounded annual growth rate reached 62.8% as of December 31, 2023. However, historical trends are not indicative of future adoption, and it is possible that the adoption of digital assets and blockchain technology may slow, take longer to develop, or never be broadly adopted, which would negatively impact our business and operating results.

We intend to continue to use our scale, expertise and balance sheet to identify and execute on acquisitions across our business lines. A series of acquisitions has diversified our product offerings and revenue sources. This includes the acquisitions of two leading cryptocurrency trading firms in November 2020 (DrawBridge Lending and Blue Fire Capital, since rebranded to “Quantitative Principal Trading”), which augmented GGM’s suite of product offerings and added veteran trading and lending talent to its leadership team. We acquired Vision Hill in May 2021, a premier asset manager in the digital asset sector. In December 2022, we acquired the Helios bitcoin mining facility and its operations from Argo Blockchain. Most recently, we completed the acquisition of GK8, a developer of secure technology solutions for self-custody of digital assets by institutions, from Celsius in February 2023. Any such acquisitions of, or investments in, companies with complementary products and technologies may affect our future operating results.

Our financial prospects and continued growth depend in part on our ability to continue to operate in a manner compliant with regulations. Our business is subject to the oversight of numerous regulatory agencies in the United States and other jurisdictions, including, but not limited to, FinCEN, the SEC and the CFTC. Many of these agencies have issued consumer advisories regarding the risks posed by digital assets to investors. Our strategy is to continue to invest significantly in our finance, legal, compliance, and security functions in order to remain at the forefront of digital asset policy initiatives and regulatory trends. We service institutional customers, instead of consumers, potentially mitigating some of the compliance risks. However, as the industry matures, we may experience fluctuations in our operating results as a result of changes in the laws and regulations that are applicable to our business.

Fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability (i.e., the “exit” price) in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.

Fair value is a market-based measure considered from the perspective of a market participant. When market assumptions are not readily available, assumptions are made to reflect those that the Company believes market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability at the measurement date.

Certain of the Company’s assets and liabilities are held at fair value. In determining fair value, the Company uses various valuation approaches and establishes a hierarchy for inputs used in measuring fair value, requiring the most observable inputs be used when available. Observable inputs are inputs that market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability developed based on market data obtained from sources independent of the Company. Unobservable inputs are inputs that reflect assumptions the Company believes other market participants would use in pricing the asset or liability; they are developed based on the best information available in the circumstance. The fair value hierarchy is broken down into three levels: Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 based on the observability of inputs. The level of judgment required in determining the fair value depends on the availability of observable market information. Financial instruments classified within Level 3, which use significant unobservable inputs, require more significant judgments compared to Level 1 and 2 instruments.

The Company values Level 1 and Level 2 assets and liabilities using quoted market prices or alternative pricing sources and models utilizing market observable inputs. The Company utilizes unobservable pricing inputs and assumptions, including but not limited to prior transactions, in determining the fair value of its Level 3 assets and liabilities. These unobservable pricing inputs and assumptions may differ by asset/liability and in the application of valuation methodologies. The Company’s reported fair value estimates could vary materially if different unobservable pricing inputs and other assumptions were used; or for applicable assets/liabilities, if the Company only used a single valuation methodology instead of assigning a weighting to different methodologies. Key unobservable inputs that have a significant impact on the Company’s Level 3 valuations are described in

The Company recognizes Digital intangible assets at cost less applicable impairment charge. Impairment exists when the carrying amount exceeds its fair value. The fair value for Digital intangible assets is determined using available pricing on the principal market for the respective digital assets.

The Company also recognizes impairment on property and equipment, including mining equipment, when facts and circumstances indicate that the carrying amounts may not be recoverable. Impairment testing of property and equipment held for use requires determining recoverability based on undiscounted estimated future cash flows, and if recoverability fails, the fair value of those assets. This process involves significant judgement. The most significant property and equipment the Company holds relate to its bitcoin mining operation. The Company estimated the future cash flows related to the mining equipment using bitcoin price and Bitcoin network difficulty as well as expected power cost as key inputs. The estimated market prices of the Company’s application-specific integrated circuits (“ASICs”) is the most significant driver of the fair value of mining equipment. As of December 31, 2023, a decrease in market price of 20% would have resulted in $0 additional impairment.

The Company’s calculation of allowance for credit losses involves judgment in applying various assumptions including valuation of collateral, loss in value of collateral, and the Company’s ability to liquidate collateral in an event of default. Most of the Company’s loans are over collateralized, and the Company has the ability to request additional collateral to maintain a required loan to value ratio. The Company uses the practical expedient under ASC 326-20-35-6 to estimate credit losses based on the fair value of the collateral. However, a rapid loss in value of collateral assets could affect the Company’s estimate of expected credit losses. For example, a reduction of digital asset collateral by 20% would increase the allowance for credit losses by $7.0 million as of December 31, 2023.

See Note 2 to our consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this prospectus for recently adopted accounting pronouncements and recently issued accounting pronouncements not yet adopted as of the dates of the statement of financial position included in this prospectus.

Operating expenses consist of transaction expenses, compensation and benefits, general and administrative, technology, profit share arrangements, professional fees, and exchangeable notes interest expense.

Below is a discussion of our annual period results of operations for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, as well as the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. The results of operations presented below should be reviewed in conjunction with Galaxy’s consolidated financial statements and notes thereto included elsewhere in this prospectus.

The Company early adapted ASU 2023-08, published in December 2023, requiring the majority of our digital assets to be measured at fair value each period, beginning with the fiscal year starting January 1, 2023. Prior periods remain at lower of cost or fair value accounting for digital intangible assets.

The table below presents our results of operations for the December 31, 2023 and 2022.

Revenues were $51.6 billion, a decrease of $68.2 billion, or 57%, for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022 driven by a $68.2 billion decrease in Digital assets sales. Galaxy recognizes revenue from transactions with customers, which include centralized trading platforms, and the corresponding Digital asset sales cost on a gross basis because of its role as principal in sales and purchases of digital intangible assets. The significant volume of Galaxy digital intangible asset sales results in revenue, specifically Digital assets sales revenue and the corresponding Digital asset sales cost, which are much larger than other components of the Company’s statement of operations. As a result, changes in Revenue on the Company’s statement of operations overshadow other parts of the business, but are predominantly offset by Transaction expenses in Net income.

Digital assets sales was $51.5 billion, a decrease of $68.2 billion, or 57%, for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease was primarily driven by curtailed activity from our high frequency trading business. Our high frequency trading business, with its high volume of gross revenue, contributed approximately $31.1 billion and $101.4 billion to Digital assets sales revenues in 2023 and 2022, respectively, a decrease of $70.3 billion. Galaxy wound down the operations of Quantitative Principal Trading (“QPT”) in the fourth quarter of 2023.

Sales of bitcoin, Ether and Tether made up 95% and 97% of Digital assets sales in 2023 in 2022, respectively. Approximately 54% of Digital asset sales revenue in 2023 was comprised of the sale of bitcoin, compared to 51% of Digital assets sales revenue in 2022. Approximately 21% of Digital asset sales revenue in 2023 was comprised of the sale of Ether, compared to 23% of Digital assets sales revenue in 2022.

Fees were $50.8 million, an increase of $16.5 million, or 48%, for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. This increase was primarily attributable to mining hosting revenue of $24.3 million, which was a new source of revenue in 2023 since the Helios data center acquisition in December 2022, offset by lower fees from investment banking.

Lending was $48.1 million, an increase of $18.8 million, or 64%, for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. This increase was primarily attributable to the increased size of the loan book and higher rates on the new loans, which originated after the year ended December 31, 2022 and have been outstanding for the year ended December 31, 2023.

Blockchain rewards were $6.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, a decrease of $0.8 million, or 11.2%, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. The decrease was attributable to lower staking rewards in 2023, partially offset by validator operation revenue. Galaxy launched validators in 2023 to which third party and proprietary digital assets may be bonded on proof of stake networks to generate blockchain rewards.

Proprietary mining was $33.1 million, an increase of $3.2 million, or 11%, for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. Galaxy’s primary mining facility, Helios, was acquired in December of 2022. The build out of the new facility resulted in increasing capacity over the course of 2023. At the end of 2023, Galaxy was mining approximately 4.0 bitcoin per day, compared to 1.2 per day at the end of 2022. Prior to the Helios acquisition, Galaxy relied on third-party data centers hosting Galaxy mining machines.

Net gain on digital assets was $333.5 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, as compared to a net gain of $938.4 million for the year ended December 31, 2022. For fiscal year starting January 1, 2023 Galaxy early adopted ASU 2023-08, requiring a majority of digital assets in which Galaxy transacts to be measured at fair value. Prior to the adoption of ASU 2023-08, Galaxy measured all digital intangible assets to the lower of cost or fair value.

The financial statements for periods prior to January 1, 2023 were not adjusted with the adoption of ASU 2023-08, and an opening period adjusting entry was recorded in Unit holders’ capital as of January 1, 2023. Periods prior to January 1, 2023 reflect lower of cost or fair value for all digital intangible assets.

In 2023 with the adoption of fair value accounting for the digital intangible assets to which the new ASU is applicable, the gain on digital assets was driven by increased valuations for digital assets from Galaxy’s net long position in these assets. Galaxy holds net long positions predominantly in bitcoin and Ether which increased in value by 156% and 90%, respectively, in 2023.

In 2022 significant gains were recognized when digital intangible assets that were carried at cost less accumulated impairment were used to repay digital assets loans payable, because the fair value of the digital intangible assets used had increased above their carrying amounts. This was partially offset by losses on Galaxy’s digital assets held in consolidated funds for part of the year, which was predominantly in bitcoin and Ether. In 2022, bitcoin decreased in value by 64% and Ether decreased by 67%.

Net gain on investments was $97.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2023, as compared to a net loss of $464.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2022. The gain was primarily attributable to gains on the sale of Block.one common stock, partial sale of Galaxy’s investment in Fireblocks Ltd., as well as increases in the fair value of the Company’s investments in Mt. Gox Investment Fund LP, FTX bankruptcy claims, Galaxy Liquid Crypto Fund, LP, and a general increase in the valuation of our remaining venture investments portfolio, partially offset by realized losses on short positions. The losses in 2022 were driven by reduced valuations on our investment portfolio, driven primarily by decreased values of digital assets.

Net gain on derivatives trading was $151.6 million, a decrease of $41.0 million, or 21%, for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. Derivatives trading gains include proprietary trading and hedging activities within the Global Markets segment. The decrease was driven by a decrease in our proprietary trading activities. The high frequency trading business we wound down in 2023 captured spreads between spot and derivative prices for digital assets. Generally, for high frequency trading, we were long spot and short derivatives. As a result in 2022 with declining digital assets prices, we had gains in Derivatives offset by impairment losses on Digital assets. In addition, the year ended December 31, 2022 included large gains from proprietary macro hedges such as interest rates and foreign exchange.

Net derivative gain represents gains / (losses) from settled derivative trades and gains / (losses) on open derivatives. It was driven by the following free-standing derivative instruments: