Fangdd Network (DUO) 20-F2022 FY Annual report (foreign)

Indicate the number of outstanding shares of each of the issuer’s classes of capital or common stock as of the close of the period covered by the annual report.

As of December 31, 2022, there were (i) 1,850,866,648 Class A ordinary shares issued and outstanding, par value of US$0.0000001 per share (excluding Class A ordinary shares issued to the depositary bank for bulk issuance of ADSs reserved for future issuances upon the exercise or vesting of awards granted under our share incentive plans), (ii) 619,938,058 Class B ordinary shares outstanding, par value of US$0.0000001 per share, and (iii) 75,000 Class C ordinary shares outstanding, par value of US$0.0000001 per share.

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.          Yes ☐  No ☒

If this report is an annual or transition report, indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.Yes ☐  No ☒

Note – Checking the box above will not relieve any registrant required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 from their obligations under those Sections.

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.Yes ☒  No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).    Yes ☒  No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

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If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards† provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

† The term “new or revised financial accounting standard” refers to any update issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board to its Accounting Standards Codification after April 5, 2012.

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report.

Yes ☐ No ☒

If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements.       Yes ☐  No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to § 240.10D-1(b).                 Yes ☐  No ☐

Indicate by check mark which basis of accounting the registrant has used to prepare the financial statements included in this filing:

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If “Other” has been checked in response to the previous question, indicate by check mark which financial statement item the registrant has elected to follow.   ☐    Item 17☐ Item 18

If this is an annual report, indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).  Yes ☐   No   ☒

(APPLICABLE ONLY TO ISSUERS INVOLVED IN BANKRUPTCY PROCEEDINGS DURING THE PAST FIVE YEARS)

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed all documents and reports required to be filed by Sections 12, 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 subsequent to the distribution of securities under a plan confirmed by a court.   Yes ☐  No  ☐

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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INTRODUCTION

Conventions Used in this Annual Report

In this annual report, unless otherwise indicated or the context otherwise requires:

Our reporting currency is Renminbi because our business is mainly conducted in China and all of our revenues are denominated in Renminbi. This annual report contains translations of Renminbi amounts into U.S. dollars at specific rates solely for the convenience of the reader. Unless otherwise stated, all translations from Renminbi into U.S. dollars and from U.S. dollars to Renminbi in this annual report were made at the rate of RMB6.8972 to US$1.00, the exchange rate in effect as of December 30, 2022 as set forth in the H.10 statistical release of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. We make no representation that any Renminbi or U.S. dollar amounts could have been, or could be, converted into U.S. dollars or Renminbi, as the case may be, at any particular rate, or at all.

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This annual report contains forward-looking statements that reflect our current expectations and views of future events. These forward-looking statements are made under the “safe-harbor” provisions of the U.S. Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. Known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors, including those listed under “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors,” may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from those expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements.

You can identify these forward-looking statements by words or phrases such as “may,” “will,” “expect,” “anticipate,” “aim,” “estimate,” “intend,” “plan,” “believe,” “likely to,” “potential,” “continue” or other similar expressions. We have based these forward-looking statements largely on our current expectations and projections about future events and financial trends that we believe may affect our financial condition, results of operations, business strategy and financial needs. These forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, statements about:

You should read this annual report and the documents that we refer to in this annual report and have filed as exhibits to this annual report completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. Other sections of this annual report include additional factors that could adversely impact our business and financial performance. Moreover, we operate in an evolving environment. New risk factors and uncertainties emerge from time to time and it is not possible for our management to predict all risk factors and uncertainties, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors, may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

You should not rely upon forward-looking statements as predictions of future events. The forward-looking statements made in this annual report relate only to events or information as of the date on which the statements are made in this annual report. Except as required by law, we undertake no obligation to update or revise publicly any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, after the date on which the statements are made or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events.

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PART I

Investing in our securities involves a high degree of risk. Please carefully consider the risks discussed under “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors” in this annual report.

Our Holding Company Structure and Contractual Arrangements with the VIE and Its Shareholders

Fangdd Network Group Ltd. is not an operating company but a Cayman Islands holding company with operations primarily conducted by its subsidiaries and variable interest entity, or the VIE, and the VIE’s subsidiaries. Foreign ownership in the business involving value-added telecommunications service (except for e-commerce, domestic conferencing, store-and-forward, and call center services), including internet real estate services, is subject to significant restrictions under current PRC laws, rules and regulations. Accordingly, we operate these businesses in China through Shenzhen Fangdd Network Technology Co., Ltd., which we refer to as Fangdd Network or the VIE, in this annual report. A series of contractual arrangements were entered into among one of our wholly owned PRC subsidiaries, Shenzhen Fangdd Information Technology Co., Ltd., which we refer to as Shenzhen Fangdd or the WFOE, the VIE and the VIE’s nominee shareholders, which we refer to as the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements. These agreements allow the WFOE to (i) direct the activities of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries that most significantly impact the economic performance of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries; (ii) receive substantially all of the economic benefits of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries; and (iii) have an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interest in the VIE when and to the extent permitted by PRC law. As a result of the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements, we are the primary beneficiary of the VIE for accounting purposes and treat it as a PRC consolidated entity under U.S. GAAP. We consolidate the financial results of the VIE and its subsidiaries in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Neither we nor our investors own any equity ownership in, direct foreign investment in, or control through such ownership/investment of the VIE. These Fangdd Network VIE Agreements have not been tested in a court of law in the PRC. As a result, investors in our ADSs are not purchasing equity interest in our operating entities in China but instead are purchasing equity interest in a Cayman Islands holding company.

As used in this annual report, (i) “Fangdd Network,” “variable interest entity” or “VIE” refers to Shenzhen Fangdd Network Technology Co., Ltd., a company incorporated in the People’s Republic of China; (ii) “Shenzhen Fangdd,” or “WFOE” refers to Shenzhen Fangdd Information Technology Co., Ltd.; (iii) “Fangdd Cayman” or “our holding company” refers to Fangdd Network Group Ltd., our Cayman Islands holding company; and (iv) “we,” “us,” “our company,” or “our” refer to Fangdd Network Group Ltd. and its subsidiaries and, in the context of describing our operations and consolidated financial information, also include the VIE and its subsidiaries.

Our corporate structure is subject to risks associated with our contractual arrangements with the VIE. Our holding company that investors will own may never have a direct ownership interest in the businesses that are conducted by the VIE. If the PRC government finds that the agreements that establish the structure for operating our business in China do not comply with PRC laws and regulations, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change or are interpreted differently in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in the operations of the VIE. This would result in the VIE being deconsolidated. The majority of our assets, including the necessary licenses to conduct business in China, are held by the VIE. A significant part of our revenue is generated by the VIE. An event that results in the deconsolidation of the VIE would have a material adverse effect on our operations and result in the ADSs diminishing substantially in value or even becoming worthless. Our holding company, the WFOE, the VIE and our investors face uncertainty about potential future actions by the PRC government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the VIE and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of the VIE and our company as a whole. For a detailed description of the risks associated with our corporate structure, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors— Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure” in this annual report.

We and the VIE face various legal and operational risks and uncertainties related to doing business in Mainland China and Hong Kong. A significant part of our business operations in China are conducted through the VIE, and we are subject to complex and evolving PRC laws and regulations. For example, we and the VIE face risks associated with regulatory approvals on offshore offerings, the use of variable interest entities, anti-monopoly regulatory actions, and oversight on cybersecurity and data privacy, which may impact our ability to conduct certain businesses, accept foreign investments, or list on a United States or other foreign exchange. These risks could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs, significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors, or cause such securities to significantly decline in value or become worthless. For a detailed description of risks related to doing business in China, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China.”

The Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act

Pursuant to the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCA Act, if the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, determines that a company retains a foreign accounting firm that cannot be subject to inspections by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, or the PCAOB, for two consecutive years, the SEC will prohibit its securities from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report relaying to the SEC its determinations that the board was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong. In March 2022, the SEC issued its first “Conclusive list of issuers identified under the HFCA Act” indicating that those companies were formally subject to the delisting provisions. In May 2022, we were conclusively identified by the SEC under the HFCA Act due to the fact that our previous auditor was located in Mainland China and could not be inspected by the PCAOB. See https://www.sec.gov/hfcaa.

On August 26, 2022, the PCAOB signed with the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC, and the Ministry of Finance of the PRC a Statement of Protocol, which gives the PCAOB sole discretion to select the firms, audit engagements and potential violations it inspects and investigates and put in place procedures for PCAOB inspectors and investigators to view complete audit work papers with all information included and for the PCAOB to retain information as needed. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed Mainland China and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. Each year, the PCAOB will determine whether it can inspect and investigate completely audit firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong, among other jurisdictions.

We have engaged our current auditor, a Singapore-based accounting firm that is registered with the PCAOB, as our independent registered public accounting firm for the fiscal year ending December 31, 2022, and our current auditor can be inspected under the PCAOB requirements. However, if the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong, it may create uncertainties about the ability of our current auditor to fully cooperate with the PCAOB’s request for audit workpapers. Such lack of inspection could cause trading in our securities to be prohibited under the HFCA Act and ultimately result in a determination by a securities exchange to delist our securities. If our shares and ADSs are prohibited from trading in the United States, there is no certainty that we will be able to list on a non-U.S. exchange or that a market for our shares will develop outside of the United States. Such a prohibition would substantially impair your ability to sell or purchase our ADSs when you wish to do so, and the risk and uncertainty associated with delisting would cause our ADSs to significantly decline in value or become worthless. Also, such a prohibition would significantly affect our ability to raise capital on terms acceptable to us, or at all, which would have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and prospects. For more details, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors —Risks Related to Doing Business in China—Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCA Act in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in China. The delisting of our ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment.”

Permissions Required from the PRC Authorities for Our Operations

We conduct our business primarily through our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries in China. Our operations in China are governed by PRC laws and regulations. As of the date of this annual report, our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries have obtained the requisite licenses and permits from the PRC government authorities that are material for the business operations of our subsidiaries and our consolidated affiliated entities in China, including, among others, the Value-Added Telecommunication Business Operating License and the Certificate of Filing of Real Estate Brokerage Business. Given the uncertainties of interpretation and implementation of relevant laws and regulations and the enforcement practice by relevant government authorities, we may be required to obtain additional licenses, permits, filings or approvals for the functions and services of our platform in the future. For more detailed information, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks related to Our Business and Industry—If we fail to obtain or keep licenses, permits or approvals applicable to the various real estate services provided by us, we may incur significant financial penalties and other government sanctions.”

The PRC government has recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight and control over offerings that are conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers. For example, on February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated a set of new regulations, including the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offerings and Listings by Domestic Companies, or the Trial Measures, and five supporting guidelines. The regulations came into effect on March 31, 2023. The Trial Measures refine the regulatory system by subjecting both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing activities to the CSRC filing-based administration. Requirements for filing entities, time points and procedures are specified. Where a PRC domestic company indirectly offers and lists securities in overseas markets, the issuer shall designate a major domestic operating entity to file with the CSRC. Companies, like us, that are already listed overseas as of March 31, 2023 are not required to make an immediate filing with the CSRC until a subsequent offering, in which case a filing should be made with the CSRC within three business days after the offering is completed. Failure to complete the filing required by the Trial Measures may result in a warning and a fine between RMB1 million and RMB10 million. Additionally, on December 28, 2021, the Cyberspace Administration of China, or the CAC, together with another twelve regulatory authorities jointly issued the Cybersecurity Review Measures, which came into effect on February 15, 2022. The Cybersecurity Review Measures require that, an online platform operator that possesses personal data of more than one million users shall declare to the Office of Cybersecurity Review for cybersecurity review before listing in a foreign country. For more detailed information, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks related to Doing Business in China—The approval of and the filing with the CSRC, CAC or other PRC governmental authorities may be required in connection with our future offshore offerings under PRC law and if required, we cannot predict whether or how soon we will be able to obtain such approval or complete such filing.”

Furthermore, in connection with our previous issuance of securities to investors, under current PRC laws, regulations and regulatory rules, as of the date of this annual report, we, our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries, (i) are not required to obtain permissions or approvals from the CSRC, and (ii) are not required to go through cybersecurity review by the CAC, because (i) the ownership structures of our PRC subsidiaries and VIE were not established through acquisition of equity interest or assets of any PRC domestic company by foreign entities as defined under the Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investor, and (ii) the Cybersecurity Review Measures do not provide any explanation or interpretation of “affect or may affect national security.” In addition, we, our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries have not been asked to obtain or denied such permissions by any PRC authority, nor have we received any inquiry, notice, warning or sanctions regarding our corporate structure and contractual arrangements from the CSRC, CAC or any other PRC governmental agency. However, there are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws. Accordingly, a PRC government agency may take a view that is contrary to the above conclusion.

Doing Business in China

We and the VIE face risks and uncertainties related to doing business in China in general, including, but not limited to, the following:

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Since 2021, the PRC government has initiated a series of regulatory actions and guidelines to regulate business operations in China, including cracking down on illegal activities in the securities market, enhancing supervision over China-based companies listed overseas, adopting new measures to extend the scope of cybersecurity reviews and strength the administration on data cross-border transfer, regulating overseas securities offering and listing, and expanding the efforts in anti-monopoly enforcement, which may impact our ability to conduct business, accept foreign investments, or list on a U.S. or other foreign exchange.

For a detailed description of risks related to doing business in China, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China” and “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulation” in this annual report on Form 20-F.

Cash Flows Through Our Organization

Under our current corporate structure, we may rely on dividend payments from our subsidiaries, to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have. As of the date of this annual report, none of our subsidiaries have ever issued any dividends or made other distributions to us or their respective holding companies nor have we or any of our subsidiaries ever paid dividends or made other distributions to U.S. investors. We currently intend to retain all future earnings to finance business operations. As a result, we do not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Any limitation on the ability of our subsidiaries to distribute dividends to us or on the ability of the VIE to make payments to us may restrict our ability to satisfy our liquidity requirements. If any of our subsidiaries incurs debt on its own behalf in the future, the instruments governing such debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends to us. To the extent cash in the business is in the PRC or a PRC entity, and may need to be used to fund operations outside of the PRC, the funds may not be available due to limitations placed by the government. For more details, see “Item 3. Key Information—A. [Reserved]—Transfer of Cash Through Our Organization,” “Item 3. Key Information—A. [Reserved]—Impact of Taxation on Dividends or Distributions,” and “Item 3. Key Information—A. [Reserved]—Restrictions and Limitations on Transfer of Capital.”

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Contractual Arrangements with the VIE and Its Shareholders

Neither we nor our subsidiaries own any equity interest in the VIE. The equity interest in the VIE is legally held by individuals who act as nominee shareholders of the VIE on behalf of the WFOE. A series of contractual arrangements were entered into between the WFOE, the VIE and the VIE’s shareholders, which we refer to as the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements. The Fangdd Network VIE Agreements were originally entered into in March 2014 and subsequently amended to include registration of the Equity Interest Pledge Agreements with the relevant registration authority and amended when three nominee shareholders transferred equity interest in Fangdd Network to other nominee shareholders in 2017. The Fangdd Network VIE Agreements allow the WFOE to (i) direct the activities of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries that most significantly impact the economic performance of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries; (ii) receive substantially all of the economic benefits of the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries; and (iii) have an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interest in the VIE when and to the extent permitted by PRC law. As a result of the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements, we are the primary beneficiary of the VIE for accounting purposes and treat it as a PRC consolidated entity under U.S. GAAP. We consolidate the financial results of the VIE in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

The Fangdd Network VIE Agreements include Business Operation Agreement, Powers of Attorney, Equity Interest Pledge Agreements, Option Agreements, Operation Maintenance Service Agreement and Technology Development and Application Service Agreement. The following is a brief description of the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements:

For a summary of the material provisions of the Fangdd Network VIE Agreements, please refer to “Item 4. Information on the Company—C. Organizational Structure” in this annual report on Form 20-F.

The contractual arrangements may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing us with control over Fangdd Network, and we may incur substantial costs to enforce the terms of the arrangements. The legal environment in the PRC is not as developed as in other jurisdictions, such as the United States. As a result, uncertainties in the PRC legal system could limit our ability, as a Cayman Islands holding company, to enforce these contractual arrangements and doing so may be quite costly. There are also substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current and future PRC laws, regulations and rules regarding the status of the rights of our Cayman Islands holding company with respect to its contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders. It is uncertain whether any new PRC laws, rules or regulations related to VIE structures will be adopted or if adopted, what effect they may have on our corporate structure. If, as a result of such contractual arrangements, we or Fangdd Network is found to be in violation of any existing or future PRC laws or regulations, or such contractual arrangement is determined as illegal and invalid by the PRC court, arbitral tribunal or regulatory authorities, the relevant PRC regulatory authorities would have broad discretion to take action in dealing with such violations or failures. For a detailed description of the risks associated with our corporate structure, please refer to risks disclosed under “Item 3.D. Key Information—Risk Factors— Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure” in this annual report on Form 20-F.

We and the VIE are also subject to risks and uncertainties related to our corporate structure, including, but not limited to, the following:

A.[Reserved]

Financial Information Related to the VIE and Parent

Set forth below are the condensed consolidating schedules showing the results of operations, financial position and cash flows for our holding company, the VIE and its subsidiaries and our other subsidiaries, eliminating adjustments and consolidated totals for the periods and as of the dates presented.

Condensed Consolidated Schedule of Results of Operations

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Since Fangdd Network has incurred and accumulated losses historically, there was no service fee payable by Fangdd Network to Shenzhen Fangdd. As of the date of this annual report, Shenzhen Fangdd has not made any dividend payments or distributions to us, and no dividends or distributions have been made by us. We intend to keep future earnings to re-invest in and finance the expansion of our business, and we do not anticipate that any cash dividends will be paid in the foreseeable future.

B. Capitalization and Indebtedness.

Not applicable.

C.Reasons for the Offer and Use of Proceeds.

Not applicable.

D.Risk Factors.

Summary of Risk Factors

Below please find a summary of the principal risks we face, organized under relevant headings.

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure

Risks Related to Doing Business in China

Risks Related to The ADSs

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

We have a history of losses and negative cash flows from operating activities, and we may not achieve profitability in the future.

We incurred a net loss of RMB221.4 million, RMB1.2 billion and RMB239.6 million (US$34.7 million) in 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively. We had negative cash flows from operating activities of RMB325.0 million, RMB60.6 million and RMB127.0 million (US$18.4 million) in 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively.

The accompanying consolidated financial statements have been prepared assuming that we will continue as a going concern, which contemplates the realization of assets and the satisfaction of liabilities in the normal course of business. We have experienced recurring losses from operations. As of December 31, 2022, we had an accumulated deficit of RMB4.6 billion (US$660.8 million). For the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded a significant decline in our revenue, resulted a net loss of RMB239.6 million (US$34.7 million) and had negative cash flows from operating activities of RMB127.0 million (US$18.4 million). As of December 31, 2022, our cash and cash equivalents balance were RMB143.9 million. Our ability to continue as a going concern is dependent on, among other things, our ability to generate cash flows from operations and our ability to arrange adequate financing arrangements, which in turn are subject to various factors, many of which are beyond our control. For example, our revenues depend on the number of active agents who establish online shops in our marketplace and the number of transactions they are able to complete within a given period using the resources offered by our marketplace. Agents’ willingness to subscribe to and pay for our premium services depends on the quality and breadth of our service offerings. As we continue to take new business initiatives to introduce more SaaS solutions, we expect our operating costs and expenses to increase in the future. We plan to devote substantial financial resources to develop real estate transaction digitalization services, including product development, sales and marketing, technology infrastructure, and strategic opportunities that may not result in increased revenue or growth in our business.

We expect that we will continue to incur losses at least in the near term as we strategically reduce the scale of our property transaction services and actively explore opportunities from other real estate transaction digitalization services. We may also incur significant losses in the future for a number of reasons, including possible changes in general economic conditions and regulatory environment, the continued downturn status of China’s real estate market, the heightened credit risks of developers, as well as other risks described in this annual report, and we may encounter unforeseen expenses, difficulties, complications and delays in generating revenues or profitability. Our revenue declined from 2021 to 2022, and if this trend continues, we may not be able to reduce costs in a timely manner. In addition, if we reduce variable costs to respond to losses, this may limit our ability to acquire customers and grow our revenues. Accordingly, we may not achieve or maintain profitability and may continue to incur significant losses in the future.

If our estimates relating to our allowance for doubtful accounts prove to be wrong, our financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Our allowance for doubtful accounts decreased to a negative of RMB67.6 million (US$9.8 million) in 2022 from RMB612.7 million in 2021. We reduced our allowance for doubtful accounts due to our estimates of increased collectability of our accounts receivable from real estate developers, given that (i) a series of preferential policies were promulgated to spur the recovery of Chinese real estate market, such as greater access to credit and funding for real estate developers, mortgage interest rate cuts and lower down payments for home buyers, loosening restrictions on secondhand housing sales and purchases, and (ii) the ease of COVID-19 related restrictions in China. However, There remains uncertainty as to the effects of these preferential factors on real estate developers in repaying debts and our company in collecting accounts receivable when they become due. If our estimates relating to the allowance for doubtful accounts prove to be wrong, our financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

We have been taking measures to protect our accounts receivable. For accounts receivable that are seriously overdue, we have initiated lawsuits and applied for injunctive relief. We enhance credit risk management by conducting periodic reviews of the credit status of the real estate developers and terminating cooperation relationships with real estate developers with poor credit conditions to ensure the collectability of our accounts receivable. If we fail to collect our accounts receivable on time or if real estate developers fail to satisfy their financial obligations towards us, our business and results of operations may be materially adversely affected and we may face liquidity constraints as a result.

We have a limited operating history, and we may not be able to effectively implement our business strategies.

We have a limited operating history, which makes it difficult to assess our future prospects or forecast our future results of operations. While we have experienced rapid growth in 2018 and 2019 with our total revenue growing from RMB2.3 billion in 2018 to RMB3.6 billion in 2019, our total revenue dropped to RMB2.5 billion in 2020, RMB942.4 million in 2021 and RMB245.9 million (US$35.7 million) in 2022. In 2022, our growth was impacted by various factors, including the continued downturn status of China’s real estate market, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the heightened credit risks of developers. In response to these challenges, we strategically reduced the scale of our property transaction services and actively explore opportunities from other real estate transaction digitalization services. We may fail to regain our historical growth rates or achieve profitability. You should not consider our historical growth and financial performance as indicative of our future financial performance.

You should consider our future operations in light of the challenges and uncertainties that we may encounter. These risks and challenges include our ability to, among other things:

If the demand for online residential real estate transaction services does not develop as we expect, or if we fail to continue to address the needs of real estate agents, real estate sellers, real estate buyers and other market participants or attract additional marketplace users, our business and financial conditions may be materially adversely affected.

Our business is susceptible to fluctuations in China’s real estate market, its overall economic growth and government measures aimed at China’s real estate industry.

We conduct our real estate services business primarily in China. Our business depends substantially on conditions in China’s real estate industry. Demand for private residential real estate in China has grown steadily in recent years but such growth is often coupled with volatility and fluctuations in real estate transaction volume and prices. Fluctuations of supply and demand in China’s real estate industry are caused by economic, social, political, environmental and other factors. The Chinese economy has shown slower growth since 2012 compared to the previous decade and this trend is likely to continue. There is considerable uncertainty over the long-term effects of the expansionary monetary and fiscal policies adopted by the central banks and financial authorities of some of the world’s leading economies, including China. Any severe or prolonged slowdown in China’s economy may materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, there may be situations in which China’s real estate industry is so active that real estate developers see a reduced need for collaborating with real estate agents and reduce their spending on such initiatives, which could potentially adversely affect our results of operations. To the extent fluctuations in China’s real estate industry adversely affect spending on real estate sales and marketing, our financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

The real estate industry in China is also subject to government regulations on primary and resale property transactions, including measures that are intended to control real estate prices. In recent years, PRC governmental authorities have issued a number of restrictive rules on the real estate market. For instance, major cities in China rolled out regulatory measures to regulate the real estate market and restrict debt financing to real estate developers. For homebuyers, it takes more time than before to obtain housing bank loans under the tightened bank borrowing policies, such as the newly-implemented real estate loan concentration management system. Impacted by the macroeconomic regulation and the tightening of mortgage loans, the real estate market has rapidly cooled off and credit risk for developers has been intensifying. While these measures and policies remain in effect, they may continue to depress the real estate market, dissuade potential purchasers from making purchases, reduce transaction volume, cause a decline in average selling prices, prevent developers from raising the capital they need and increase developers’ costs to start new projects. The general trend of tightening government regulation over the real estate industry may result in lower growth rates in the real estate industry.

In recent years, PRC government authorities and certain cities also have issued a number of restrictive rules on the real estate agencies, requiring that real estate agencies shall check the ownership information of the property and the identification for the client before publication of the property information and the property information published shall be authentic, comprehensive and accurate. Recently, some of the largest and most affluent cities in China have introduced new measures to administer the price of real estate. For instance, on February 23, 2021, the Shenzhen Municipal Housing and Construction Bureau issued a work plan on a special inspection of the reference price of second-hand residential property transactions to promote stable development of the local real estate market. On March 3, 2021, governmental authorities in Shanghai announced the notice on further strengthening the administration of the real estate market in Shanghai, according to which certain restrictions are imposed on real estate newly purchased in Shanghai.

The PRC government may continue to adopt new measures in the future that may result in lower growth rates in the real estate industry. Frequent changes in government policies may also create uncertainty that could discourage investment in real estate. Our business may be materially and adversely affected as a result of decreased transaction volumes or real estate prices that may result from government policies.

The COVID-19 coronavirus has had and may continue to have adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

In December 2019, a novel strain of coronavirus, COVID-19, was first reported to have surfaced in Wuhan, China. Since then, the COVID-19 coronavirus has spread globally. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic caused the Chinese government to take unprecedented measures to contain the virus, such as lock-down of cities, nationwide travel restrictions and compulsory quarantine requirements. After the initial outbreak in late 2019, from time to time, especially since late 2021 and throughout 2022, there were outbreaks of COVID-19 in many areas of China, particularly due to the Delta and Omicron variants. During the outbreaks, we had to temporarily close our office facilities, restrict employee travel, switch to online virtual meetings or even cancel meetings with partners. Also, we observed a significant drop in the number of real estate transactions completed in our marketplace, mainly because commercial activities, including those of real estate developers and agents, paused as a result of the outbreak.

In late 2022, China began to modify its COVID-19 policy, and most of the travel restrictions and quarantine requirements were lifted in December 2022. There were significant surges of COVID-19 cases across the country during this time, which disrupted our operations and adversely affected our operational and financial performance. There remains uncertainty as to the future impact of the virus, especially in light of this change in policy. Future lockdowns or other restrictive measures once imposed if reinitiate may have a material impact on our operations and financial condition. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic as well as other factors such as the continued downturn status of China’s real estate market, we suffered a fall in our financial results. Our total revenue decreased from RMB942.4 million in 2021 to RMB245.9 million (US$35.7 million). It is uncertain as to how long and how far the coronavirus outbreak may continue to impact our financial results. The real estate industry is affected by all of the factors that affect the economy in general. The full impact of the coronavirus is unknown at this time. If the outbreak continues and lasts for a prolonged period in the regions where we operate, the economy could suffer substantially from the measures and restrictions taken to combat the virus, which would in turn have adverse impact on the real estate industry, including our business prospects. To the extent the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affects our business and financial results, it may also have the effect of heightening many of the other risks described in this “Risk Factors” section, such as those relating to our high level of indebtedness, our need to generate sufficient cash flows to service our indebtedness.

A severe or prolonged downturn in the Chinese or global economy could materially and adversely affect our business and financial condition.

COVID-19 had a severe and negative impact on the Chinese and the global economy in 2021 and 2022. Due to the impact of COVID-19 and other factors, the world economy has suffered a noticeable slowdown. Whether this will lead to a prolonged downturn in the economy is still unknown. Commercial activities throughout the world could continue to be curtailed with decreased consumer spending, business disruptions, interrupted supply chains and difficulties in travel. Our business has been adversely affected by the outbreak of COVID-19. The extent to which COVID-19 impacts our results will depend on future developments, which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted.

Even before the outbreak of COVID-19, the global macroeconomic environment was facing numerous challenges. The growth rate of the Chinese economy had already been slowing since 2010. There is considerable uncertainty over the long-term effects of the expansionary monetary and fiscal policies which had been adopted by the central banks and financial authorities of some of the world’s leading economies, including the United States and China, even before 2021. The conflict in Ukraine and the imposition of broad economic sanctions on Russia could raise energy prices and disrupt global markets. Unrest, terrorist threats and the potential for war may increase market volatility across the globe. There have also been concerns about the relationship between China and other countries, including the surrounding Asian countries, which may potentially have economic effects. In particular, there is significant uncertainty about the future relationship between the United States and China with respect to trade policies, treaties, government regulations and tariffs. Economic conditions in China are sensitive to global economic conditions, as well as changes in domestic economic and political policies and the expected or perceived overall economic growth rate in China. Any severe or prolonged slowdown in the global or Chinese economy may materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We may fail to compete effectively with existing and new industry players, which could significantly reduce our market share and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We face competition in each of our primary business activities. At the national level, we compete primarily with other online real estate service providers in China, as well as with traditional real estate brokerage companies. In addition, we have faced, and may continue to face, competition from regional players. Our competitors may have more established brand names, larger visitor numbers and more extensive distribution channels than we do, either overall, or in specific regions in which we operate.

The business of providing online real estate services in China is becoming increasingly competitive. As the online real estate services industry in China is relatively new and constantly evolving, our current or future competitors may be able to better position themselves to compete as the industry matures. As our platform is transaction-oriented, our main competitors primarily focus on providing real estate listings, transaction services and home renovation services. To a lesser extent, we also compete with traffic-oriented platforms, which primarily focus on attracting online traffic and providing listing and advertising services.

We also face competition from other companies that offer e-commerce, listing and similar services. Any of these competitors may offer products and services that provide significant advantages over those offered by us in terms of performance, price, scope, creativity or other advantages. These products and services may achieve greater market acceptance than our service offerings, and thus weaken our brand. Increased competition in the online real estate services industry in China could make it difficult for us to retain existing agents and real estate buyers and attract new agents and real estate buyers, and could lead to a reduction in our revenues.

Any of our current or future competitors may also receive investments from or enter into other commercial or strategic relationships with larger, well-established and well-financed companies and obtain significantly greater financial, marketing and content licensing and development resources than us. Furthermore, some of our competitors receive support from local governments, which may place us at a disadvantage when competing with them in their local markets. We cannot assure you that we will be able to compete successfully against our current or future competitors. Any failure to compete effectively in the real estate internet services market in China would have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

If our marketplace is unable to offer comprehensive, authentic, accurate and up-to-date property listings, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

One of the key reasons for real estate agents to come to our marketplace is our comprehensive and authenticated property listings. We believe having a large number of high-quality listings attracts agents, real estate sellers and real estate buyers to our marketplace and increases the volume of potential transactions. Although we have developed a comprehensive verification procedure to ensure the timeliness, reliability, authenticity and accuracy of listing information, we cannot assure you that all information listed in our marketplace is authentic, accurate and up to date. Despite our verification procedures, information posted by agents, real estate sellers and real estate buyers may not be accurate and up to date in all aspects. To the extent we are unable to continue to offer and expand the sources of listing information, or we fail to ensure the timeliness, authenticity and accuracy of our listings, our marketplace could become less attractive to users and transaction volumes may decrease. In such an event, our competitive position could be significantly weakened and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

If we are unable to retain and attract real estate professionals or fail to continue to develop and promote our marketplace, service offerings and features, and develop the technologies that cater to their needs, our business and operating results would be harmed.

As we generate a substantial portion of our revenues from sharing commission fees with real estate agents who complete transactions in our marketplace, our business relies heavily on the total number of active agents. Our ability to attract and retain real estate professionals depends on a number of factors, including:

If we fail to attract and retain the number of total agents in our marketplace, our revenue may not grow and our business as well as operating results could suffer materially.

We have invested, and will need to continue to dedicate, significant time, efforts and resources to advertising and market promotion initiatives. Historically, our sales and marketing expenses fluctuated from quarter to quarter based on our advertising and marketing plans and due to the seasonality we experienced. We may need to devote a greater portion of our resources to continue to attract listings and strengthen our brand recognition, which may impact our profitability. We cannot guarantee that our marketing efforts will ultimately be successful, as it is affected by numerous factors, including our level of investment in, and the effectiveness of, our sales and marketing campaigns, our ability to provide consistent, high quality products and services, customer satisfaction with our products, as well as supports and services we provide, among others.

Our reliance on a limited number of property developers may materially and adversely affect us.

Our revenues from transactions rely heavily on our continued relationship with real estate developers. In the future, these property developers, all of which are independent third parties, may not continue to engage our services at the same level, or at all. If these property developers terminate or substantially reduce their business with us and we fail to engage with new property developers to provide us with new properties, our financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

In addition, a part of new properties transacted through our platform are pre-sold prior to meeting delivery conditions. Under the current PRC laws and regulations, property developers must fulfill certain conditions before they can commence pre-sales of real estate properties. On September 21, 2018, the Guangdong Real Estate Association issued an “Emergency Notice on the Relevant Opinions on Providing the Pre-sale Permit for Commodity Houses” asking for opinions on the prohibition of residential property pre-sales. On March 7, 2020, the General Office of Hainan Provincial Committee and the General Office of the People’s Government of Hainan Province issued the Notice on Establishing the System of Municipal Governments’ Responsibility for the Steady and Healthy Development of the Real Estate Market (the “Hainan Notice”) promulgating that the commercial houses constructed on the land newly assigned since the date of issuance of the Hainan Notice can only be sold after the completion of construction. We cannot assure you that the relevant authorities in China will continue to allow pre-sales of properties or will refrain from imposing additional or more stringent requirements on property pre-sales. In the event that the relevant authorities prohibit pre-sales of properties or impose additional or more stringent requirements, our real estate developer partners may be required to suspend the sales of certain projects listed on our platform or encounter delays in providing us with additional primary listings, which could have an adverse effect on our business, results of operations, cash flow, and financial condition.

We have entered into sales commitment arrangements with real estate developers and funding partners to sell new properties, which may expose us to financial and regulatory risks and may materially adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Since the beginning of 2018, we have entered into tri-party agreements with developers and funding partners which are limited partnerships formed by certain investors, including us, and are treated as our equity method investees, pursuant to which the funding partners, rather than us, are required to advance developers the deposits and undertake to purchase any unsold properties from the developers. As a limited partner of these funding partners, our maximum exposure to the losses arising from our investments in these limited partnerships is the aggregate amount of (i) the carrying amounts of our investments in these limited partnerships and (ii) the maximum amount of additional capital that we are committed to providing under the respective partnership deeds. See “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects—B. Liquidity and Capital Resources—Material Cash Requirements” for more information about our capital commitment obligations. As of December 31, 2020, 2021 and 2022, our maximum exposure to the losses arising from our investments in these limited partnerships was RMB796.2 million, RMB745.9 million and RMB754.8 million (US$109.4 million), respectively. Under certain tri-party agreements entered into in 2019 and 2020, there has been added a withdrawal mechanism allowing our funding partners to withdraw from the agreement with a penalty not more than 10% of the transaction price of the properties under the agreement or of the unsold properties as of the withdrawal date, as the case may be. If our equity method investee funding partners are required to purchase the unsold units or otherwise compensate developers in the circumstances where we fail to sell the properties within the agreed upon period, we will be exposed to downside risks due to our investments in such funding partners. Considering current real estate market conditions and the operating performance of these limited partnerships, we recognized other-than-temporary impairment loss of RMB62.6 million (US$9.1 million) to the investment in certain limited partnerships in 2022.

We have also entered into sales commitment arrangements relating to certain parking space projects with real estate developers in 2021. Pursuant to such arrangements, we are obligated to pay an advance deposit of 50% of the retail price of the property in exchange for an exclusive right to sell their parking spaces for a limited period of time. The deposit will be refunded as we sell the corresponding parking spaces. As of December 31, 2022, we were refunded RMB5.0 million and the balance of the advanced deposits was RMB40.1 million. There is no guarantee that we will be able to sell all the parking spaces under the sales commitment arrangements. If we fail to sell all parking spaces, there is no guarantee that we will be able to reach amicable solutions with developers to obtain the advanced deposits, in which case our financial condition and results of operations would be materially adversely affected.

In addition, some local government authorities have implemented regulations that prohibit real estate agencies from entering into cooperation agreements with firm-commitment clauses. Although we have not been subject to such regulations in the past, cities in which we operate currently or in the future may implement relevant regulations to which we may be subject in the future. In such cases, we may be found to be in violation of relevant regulations and be subject to fines or other penalties, and our operation, business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

We depend significantly on the strength of our brand and reputation. If we, our employees, real estate agents, real estate developers, financial institutions, or other business partners on our platform engage, or are perceived to engage, in misconduct, fraudulent acts or wrongdoing, our business or reputation could be harmed and we could be exposed to regulatory investigations, costs and liabilities.

We believe our “Fangdd” brand is considered a leading online and mobile real estate platform that provides a consistent offering of high-quality products and services. Our continued success in maintaining and enhancing our brand and image depends to a large extent on our ability to satisfy the needs of agents, real estate buyers and other market participants by further developing and maintaining quality of services across our operations, as well as our ability to respond to competitive pressures.

We rely on our employees to provide digital housing transaction services and various other services. Our employees may not fully comply with our internal policies and relevant laws or regulations, and may engage in misconduct or illegal actions, which may result in negative publicity and adversely impact our reputation and brand image.

We attract real estate agencies to our platform to conduct sales of properties. We cannot assure you that each real estate agency using our platform holds the required licenses, has made all necessary filings with relevant authorities or that all actions taken by real estate agents will meet applicable legal standards and real estate buyers’ expectations, especially since it is difficult for us to effectively monitor the actions of the agents at all times. We may be found liable and subject to monetary and other penalties for the failure of real estate agencies using our platform to hold the required licenses or to make required filings with relevant authorities. In addition, real estate agents operating through our platform have in the past been the subject of various allegations, including allegations of failure to refund commission fees and other fraudulent acts or wrongdoing. Although we do not believe that we are directly responsible for real estate agents’ wrongdoings, Chinese media have reported certain incidents and negatively implicated our brand. These incidents and any similar incidents, or true or untrue claims of such incidents could harm our reputation and impair our ability to attract and retain real estate agents, real estate sellers and real estate buyers.

We partner with real estate developers to provide quality services related to new properties transactions. Any inappropriate actions taken by real estate developers as platform participants during the sales process or otherwise, may materially and adversely affect our reputation, which may result in a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition. In particular, the developers we cooperate with may breach contracts or otherwise violate laws and regulations, which may expose us to potential legal liabilities and subject us to real estate buyers’ claims for indemnifications and other remedies.

We also rely on other business partners on our platform and ecosystem. For example, we work with financial institutions to provide effective and affordable financial solutions to customers. To the extent they are unable to provide satisfactory services to real estate buyers and real estate agents, or they engage in any inappropriate or illegal actions, which may be due to factors that are beyond our control, we may suffer actual or reputational damage as a result. Any of the failure to provide satisfactory services, potential misconduct or illegal actions discussed above could materially and adversely impact our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations. If we are unable to maintain a good reputation, further enhance our brand recognition, continue to cultivate user trust and increase the positive awareness of our website, our reputation, brand, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Our initiatives to develop new products and services, introduce new technologies and improve existing products and services may not succeed, which may limit our future growth.

We have invested and plan to continue investing in the research and development of new products and services, as well as improving existing products and services. In particular, we spend great efforts in improving the features, functionalities and effectiveness of our existing websites, mobile applications and WeChat mini program. However, positive research results may not lead to commercially successful products. The new products and services we develop may not be commercially viable and may not reach the industry standards or meet platform participants’ needs. In addition, radical technological changes may not be well received by the market or lead to a long-term success. Similarly, there is no guarantee that our investment in product improvement will bring commercial return. If we are unable to continue offering high-quality and innovative products and services, we may be unable to retain and attract real estate buyers, agents, real estate sellers and other business partners, which could harm our business, results of operations and financial condition. As a result, we cannot assure you that our efforts in research and development will translate into commercial success.

Our outstanding and future indebtedness may adversely affect our available cash flow and our ability to operate our business. In addition, we may not be able to obtain additional capital when desired, on favorable terms or at all.

As of December 31, 2022, we had RMB72.5 million (US$10.5 million) short-term bank borrowings from certain Chinese banking institutions. Recent interest rates in China have been at historically low levels, and any increase in these rates would increase our interest expense and reduce our funds available for operations and other purposes. Our current level of indebtedness increases the possibility that we may be unable to pay the principal amount of our indebtedness and other obligations when due. Our outstanding and future loans, combined with our other financial obligations and contractual commitments, could have negative consequences on our business and financial conditions.

We believe that our cash, cash equivalents and restricted cash on hand will be sufficient to meet our current and anticipated needs for general corporate purposes for at least the next 12 months. However, we need to make continued investments in facilities, hardware, software and technological systems, and to retain talents to remain competitive. Due to the unpredictable nature of the capital markets and our industry, there can be no assurance that we will be able to raise additional capital on terms favorable to us, or at all, if and when required, especially if we experience disappointing operating results. If adequate capital is not available to us as required, our ability to fund our operations, take advantage of unanticipated opportunities, develop or enhance our infrastructure or respond to competitive pressures could be significantly limited. If we do raise additional funds through the issuance of equity or convertible debt securities, the ownership interests of our shareholders could be significantly diluted. These newly issued securities may have rights, preferences or privileges senior to those of existing shareholders.

Our results of operations and cash flows may fluctuate due to seasonal variations in the real estate market, the non-recurring nature of our real estate transactions, billing cycles and unpredictable development cycles.

Our revenues have historically been substantially lower during the first quarter than during other quarters, due to reduced real estate transactional activity in the PRC real estate industry during and around the Chinese Lunar New Year holiday, which generally occurs in January and February of each year. In contrast, the third and fourth quarters of each year generally contribute a majority of our annual revenues. For this reason, our results of operations may not be comparable from quarter to quarter.

Moreover, we typically enter into agreements with developers shortly before they are expected to obtain permits to sell their newly developed properties. However, the timing for obtaining these sales permits varies from project to project and is subject to uncertain and potentially lengthy delays as developers need to obtain a series of other permits and approvals related to the development before obtaining a sales permit. It is therefore difficult to predict the interval between the time we sign these agency agreements and the time we launch the sale of projects. In addition, as we typically settle the payment of our commissions with developers at the end of a sales period based on successful sales achieved during the period, which typically lasts several months, our working capital levels are affected by the time lag between the time we actually make sales, bill developers and collect the commissions owed to us.

Failure to attract and retain qualified personnel at a reasonable cost could jeopardize our competitive position. We also depend on the continued efforts of our senior management. If one or more of our key executives were unable or unwilling to continue in their present positions, our business may be severely disrupted.

Our industry is characterized by high demand and intense competition for talent. As a result, we may need to offer higher compensation and other benefits in order to attract and retain quality sales, technical and other operational personnel in the future. We compete with other companies engaged in online real estate services and internet-related businesses for qualified personnel. We have, from time to time in the past, experienced, and we expect in the future to continue to experience, difficulty in hiring and retaining highly skilled employees with appropriate qualifications. There may be a limited supply of qualified individuals in some of the cities in China where we have operations and other cities into which we intend to expand. We must hire and train qualified managerial and other employees on a timely basis to meet our business needs while maintaining consistent quality of services across our operations in various geographic locations. We must also provide continued training, through our various training programs, including Fangduoduo University, to our managerial and other employees so that they are equipped with up-to-date knowledge of various aspects of our operations and can meet our demand for high-quality services. If we fail to do so, the quality of our services may decline in one or more of the markets where we operate, which in turn, may cause a negative perception of our brand and adversely affect our business. We cannot assure you that we will be able to attract or retain the quality personnel that we need to achieve our business objectives.

In addition, we place substantial reliance on the real estate industry experience and knowledge of our senior management team as well as their relationships with other industry participants. We do not carry key person insurance on any member of our senior management team. The loss of one or more members of our senior management team, in particular if any of them joins our competitors, could hinder our ability to effectively manage our business and implement our growth strategies. Finding suitable replacements for our current senior management could be difficult as competition for such talent is intense.

If we fail to successfully attract new personnel, retain and motivate our current personnel, or retain our senior management, we may lose competitiveness and our results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

We have granted, and may continue to grant, share options and other forms of share-based incentive awards, which will adversely affect our results of operations and you will incur immediate and substantial dilution.

We adopted the 2018 Share Incentive Plan, or the 2018 Plan, in December 2018 and amended it in September 2019. Under the 2018 Plan, as amended, the maximum aggregate number of shares that may be issued pursuant to all awards is 356,514,660 ordinary shares. As of March 31, 2023, awards to purchase 69,094,125 ordinary shares were granted and outstanding under the 2018 Plan.

In 2022, we incurred RMB16.7 million (US$2.4 million) share-based compensation expenses relating to awards granted under the 2018 Plan. We believe the granting of share incentive awards is critical to our ability to attract and retain employees and promote the success of our business, and we will continue to grant share incentive awards in the future. As a result, our expenses associated with the grant of share-based incentive awards may increase, which will have an adverse effect on our results of operations. In addition, issuance of ordinary shares underlying the outstanding awards will cause you to experience an immediate and substantial dilution of your shareholding.

We use internet search engines, WeChat, and other social media to direct traffic to our website and application. If we fail to successfully implement these initiatives, our traffic would decline and our business would be adversely affected.

We use internet search engines, WeChat, and other social media to direct traffic to our website and application. For example, when a user types a physical address into a search engine, we rely on a high organic search ranking of our webpages in these search results to refer the user to our website. However, our ability to maintain high organic search result rankings through internet search engines is not within our control. Our competitors’ search engine optimization, or SEO, efforts may result in their websites receiving a higher search result ranking than ours, or internet search engines could revise their methodologies in a way that would adversely affect our search result rankings. If internet search engines modify their search algorithms in ways that are detrimental to us, or if our competitors’ SEO efforts are more successful than ours, overall growth in our user base could slow. Search engine providers could provide listings and other real estate information directly in search results or choose to align with our competitors. Our website has experienced fluctuations in search result rankings in the past, and we anticipate similar fluctuations in the future.

In addition, we integrate our platform with WeChat and other social media applications to help drive traffic to our website and mobile applications, and promote our brand and products. WeChat and other social media may make changes to their policies, which could hinder or impede audiences from being directed to our platform. Any reduction in the number of visitors directed to our website and apps through WeChat and other social media could also harm our business and operating results.

Our services and solutions and internal systems rely on software that is highly technical, and if it contains undetected errors or we fail to properly maintain or promptly upgrade our technology, our results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

Our platform and internal systems rely on software that is highly technical and complex. In addition, our platform and internal systems depend on the ability of such software to store, retrieve, process and manage immense amounts of data. The software on which we rely has contained, and may now or in the future contain, undetected errors or bugs. Errors or other design defects within the software on which we rely may result in a negative experience for our platform users, delay introductions of new features or enhancements, result in errors or compromise our ability to protect user data or our intellectual property. Any errors, bugs or defects discovered in the software on which we rely could result in harm to our reputation, loss of platform users or investors or liability for damages, any of which could adversely affect our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Any failure to protect our trademarks and other intellectual property rights could have a negative impact on our business.

We believe our trademarks, copyrights and other intellectual property rights are critical to our success. Any unauthorized use or misuse of our trademarks and other intellectual property rights could harm our business. Historically, China’s protection of intellectual property rights has been less stringent and robust compared to other countries such as the United States. Infringement of intellectual property rights continues to pose a serious risk of doing business in China. Monitoring and preventing unauthorized use is difficult and the measures we take to protect our intellectual property rights may not be adequate. For example, copyright registration by itself may not be adequate protection from potential misuse, infringement or other challenges from third parties claiming rights on our intellectual property.

Furthermore, the application of laws governing intellectual property rights in China and abroad is uncertain and evolving, and could expose us to risks. If we are unable to adequately protect our brand, trademarks and other intellectual property rights, we may lose these rights and our business may suffer materially. We typically impose contractual obligations on employees and consultants and have taken other precautionary measures to maintain the confidentiality of our proprietary information and restricted the use of the proprietary information other than for our company’s benefit. However, if our employees and consultants do not honor their contractual obligations or misappropriate our database and other proprietary information, our business would suffer as a result.

We may be subject to intellectual property infringement or misappropriation claims by third parties, which may force us to incur substantial legal expenses and, if determined adversely against us, could materially disrupt our business.

We cannot be certain that our services and information provided on our website do not or will not infringe patents, copyrights or other intellectual property rights held by third parties. From time to time, we may be subject to legal proceedings and claims alleging infringement of patents, trademarks or copyrights, or misappropriation of creative ideas or formats, or other infringement of proprietary intellectual property rights.

The validity, enforceability and scope of intellectual property rights protection in internet-related industries, particularly in China, are uncertain and still evolving. For example, as we face increasing competition and as litigation is more frequently used to resolve disputes in China, we face a higher risk of being the subject of intellectual property infringement claims. Pursuant to relevant laws and regulations, internet service providers may be held liable for damages if such providers have reason to know that the works uploaded or linked infringe the copyrights of others. Any such proceeding could result in significant costs to us and divert our management’s time and attention from the operation of our business, as well as potentially adversely impact our reputation, even if we are ultimately absolved of all liability.

Actual or alleged failure to comply with data privacy and protection laws and regulations could have a serious adverse effect on our reputation, and discourage current and potential clients from doing business with us.

Concerns about our practice of accessing, storing, processing and using the data from platform users, as well as collecting and processing the personal information published on other third parties’ websites, even if unfounded, could damage our reputation, business and results of operations. The data or information we collect primarily consists of personal mobile numbers and information on the housing unit for-sale or for-rent. We are subject to various data privacy and protection laws and regulations in China, including, without limitation, the PRC Cyber Security Law. To protect personal information, these laws and regulations regulate data collection, storage, use, processing, disclosure and transfer of personal information. Pursuant to these laws and regulations, an internet service provider is required to obtain a user’s consent to collect the user’s personal information, and is prohibited from gathering personal information that is unrelated to the services it provides, and the internet information service provider must also inform the user of the purposes, the means and the scope of the information collection and uses. The Civil Code of the PRC stipulates that: (i) natural persons’ personal information shall be protected by law; (ii) any organizations and individuals who need to obtain personal information of others shall obtain such information in accordance with the law and shall ensure the confidentiality of such information; and (iii) organizations and individuals are not allowed to illegally collect, use, process or transfer the personal information of others. It is illegal to buy and sell, supply or publish the personal information of others. The PRC Cyber Security Law also prohibits individuals or entities from obtaining personal information through theft or other illegal ways or selling or otherwise illegally disclosing personal information. The PRC Criminal Law prohibits entities and their employees from selling or otherwise illegally disclosing a citizen’s personal information or obtaining personal information through theft or other illegal ways in serious circumstances. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulation—Regulation on Information Security and Privacy Protection.”

The PRC Data Security Law, which was promulgated by the Standing Committee of PRC National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC, on June 10, 2021 and became effective on September 1, 2021, outlines the main system framework of data security protection. On August 20, 2021, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China promulgated the Personal Information Protection Law, which integrates the scattered rules with respect to personal information rights and privacy protection and took effect in November 2021. The draft Regulations for the Administration of Cyber Data Security, or the Draft Data Security Regulations, published by the CAC on November 14, 2021 for public comments until December 13, 2021 require that a data processor who processes personal information of more than 1 million individuals shall (i) go through the cyber security review if it intends to be listed in a foreign country; (ii) report to the local CAC within 15 working days once identifying any important data. Where data processors conduct merger, reorganization separation, or otherwise, the data recipient shall continue to perform its data security protection obligations, and the data processor shall report to the local competent department if personal information of more than one million people is involved. The Draft Data Security Regulations also require a data processor processing important data or being listed outside China shall carry out data security assessment annually by itself or through a third-party data security service provider and submit assessment report to local agency of the CAC. On December 28, 2021, the CAC and 12 other PRC regulatory authorities jointly issued the Cyber Security Review Measures. The Cyber Security Review Measures provide, among others, (i) the purchase of cyber products and services by critical information infrastructure operators that affects or may affect national security and the data processing activities engaged in by network platform operators that affect or may affect national security shall be subject to the cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office, the department which is responsible for the implementation of cybersecurity review under the CAC; and (ii) the network platform operators with personal information data of more than one million users that seek for listing in a foreign country are obliged to apply for a cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office. However, the Cyber Security Review Measures do not provide any explanation or interpretation of “affect or may affect national security”, and the Chinese government may have broad discretion in interpreting and enforcing these laws and regulations. We cannot predict the impact of the Cyber Security Review Measures, if any, at this stage, and we will closely monitor and assess the statutory developments in this regard. Nonetheless, given that the aforementioned draft measures or draft regulations were released for public comment only or the laws and regulations were recently promulgated or issued, their interpretation, application and enforcement are subject to substantial uncertainties and the CAC or other PRC governmental authorities may have wide discretion in the interpretation and enforcement of these laws and regulations. It also remains uncertain whether the future regulatory changes would impose additional restrictions on companies like us. We may be required to make further adjustments to our business practices to comply with the data privacy and protection laws and regulations. If the enacted version of the Draft Data Security Regulations requires any clearance of cybersecurity review and other specific actions to be completed by companies like us, we face uncertainties as to whether such clearance can be timely obtained, or at all. If we are not able to comply with the data privacy and protection requirements in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to government enforcement actions and investigations, fines, penalties, or suspension of our non-compliant operations, among other sanctions, which could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been involved in any investigations on cybersecurity review made by the Cyberspace Administration of China on such basis, and we have not received any inquiry, notice, warning, or sanctions in such respect.

Our mobile apps and websites only collect basic user personal information that is necessary to provide the corresponding services. We do not collect any sensitive personal information or other excessive personal information that is not related to the corresponding services. We update our privacy policies from time to time to meet the latest regulatory requirements of Cyberspace Administration of China and other authorities and adopt technical measures to protect data and ensure cybersecurity in a systematic way. While we have taken these measures to comply with all applicable data privacy and protection laws and regulations in China, we cannot guarantee their effectiveness. The activities of third parties such as business partners are beyond our control. If our business partners, including financial institutions, violate the PRC Cyber Security Law and related laws and regulations related to the protection of personal information, or fail to fully comply with the service agreements with us, or if any of our employees fail to comply with our internal control measures and misuse the information, we may be subject to penalties. For further information, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulation—Regulation on Information Security and Privacy Protection.” Any failure or perceived failure to comply with all applicable data privacy and protection laws and regulations, or any failure or perceived failure of our business partners to do so, or any failure or perceived failure of our employees to comply with our internal control measures, may result in negative publicity and legal proceedings or regulatory actions against us, and could damage our reputation, discourage current and potential agents, real estate sellers and real estate buyers from using our services and subject us to fines and damages, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

Furthermore, the interpretation and application of data privacy and protection laws and regulations and standards are still uncertain and evolving. We cannot assure you that relevant governmental authorities will not interpret or implement the laws or regulations in ways that negatively affect us. In addition, it is possible that we may become subject to additional or new laws and regulations regarding the protection of personal information or privacy-related matters in connection with the data we have access to. Complying with additional or new regulatory requirements could force us to incur substantial costs or require us to change our business practices. In addition to the regulatory requirements, user attitudes towards data privacy are also evolving, and user concerns about the extent to which personal information is accessible to, used by or shared with agents or other platform users may adversely affect our ability to gain access to data. Any occurrence of the abovementioned circumstances may negatively affect our business and results of operations.

If we fail to obtain or keep licenses, permits or approvals applicable to the various real estate services provided by us, we may incur significant financial penalties and other government sanctions.

The internet information services industries in China are highly regulated by the PRC government. We are required to obtain a value-added telecommunications license in order to provide internet information services. Fangdd Network has renewed in November 2020 its value-added telecommunications service license for the operations of internet content services. The regulations related to value-added telecommunication licenses also provide that a value-added telecommunication license holder must first obtain approvals from, or make filings with, competent counterparts of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, in connection with subsequent updates to its shareholding structure or certain other matters relating to such value-added telecommunication license holder. We cannot assure you that we will be able to successfully keep value-added telecommunication licenses or complete the updating and renewal of the filing records of our value-added telecommunication licenses with local MIIT counterparts on a timely basis.

Pursuant to the relevant regulations regarding real estate agents and brokerage businesses, a company active in the real estate brokerage business is required to make a filing with the real estate administrative authority within 30 days after the issuance of its business license. The requirements of the local real estate administrative authorities for such filings may vary in different cities and we cannot assure you that, if we are required to complete such filings, we will be able to do so in a timely manner or at all. In addition, we may be required to obtain additional licenses. For example, the provision of real estate market news on our platform may be viewed as providing internet news information services, which could require us to obtain an internet news information license. If we are required to apply for such licenses, we can provide no assurance that we will procure and maintain such additional licenses.

One of our subsidiaries is a small loan company permitted to operate as an online small loan lending business. Its operations are subject to the inspections and examinations of relevant government authorities from time to time. Depending on the inspection results, these local regulatory authorities may require the online small loan companies they inspected to take rectification measures within specified periods of time, may revoke the operation approvals of non-compliant companies and may order non-compliant companies to cease business operations. We cannot assure you that we will be able to obtain all the licenses, permits or approvals required to conduct our online small loan business in China or maintain our existing licenses, permits and approvals. Any failure or significant delay to obtain or renew, or any suspension or revocation, of these licenses, permits and approvals, may have a material adverse impact on our online small loan lending businesses and results of operations.

Under applicable PRC laws, rules and regulations, the failure to obtain and/or maintain the licenses and permits required to conduct our business may subject us to various penalties, including confiscation of revenues, imposition of fines and/or restrictions on their business operations, or the discontinuation of their operations. Any such disruption in the business operations of the consolidated VIE could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We are exposed to potential liabilities for information in our marketplace and for services sold over the internet and we may incur significant costs and suffer from reputational damage as a result of defending against such potential liabilities.

We source content from third party sources and list them in our marketplace, including the information collected and processed from other third parties’ websites, on our websites such as real estate listings. In certain circumstances, we do not have the authorization from owners of listed properties in our marketplace. According to relevant PRC laws and regulations, a real estate agency shall not publish information on properties without the prior written authorization of the owner. We may be exposed to liability with respect to such third-party information or the products and services sold through our website or mobile applications. Among other things, we may face allegations that, by directly or indirectly providing such third-party content, we should be liable for defamation, negligence, copyrights, trademark infringement, unfair competition or other actions by parties providing such content. We may be subject to fines or legal sanctions according to the Anti-Unfair Competition Law or other PRC laws. We may also face allegations that content on our websites, including statistics or other data we compile internally, contains false information, errors or omissions, and real estate buyers and other marketplace users could seek damages for losses incurred as a result of their reliance upon or otherwise relating to incorrect information. We may also be subject to fines and other sanctions by the PRC government for publication of information without prior written authorization or incorrect information. In addition, our websites could be used as a marketplace for fraudulent transactions. We have adopted a rigorous listing verification process that includes owner verification and cross-agent verification to ensure the listings posted in our marketplace are authentic. However, we cannot assure you that the measures we take to guard against liability for third-party content or information will be adequate to protect us from relevant civil and other liabilities. Any such claims, with or without merit, could be time-consuming to defend and result in litigation and significant diversion of management’s attention and resources. Even if these claims do not result in liability to us, we could incur significant costs in investigating and defending against these claims and suffer damage to our reputation. Our general liability insurance may not cover all potential claims to which we are exposed to and may not be adequate to indemnify us for all liabilities that may be imposed.

We provide recommendation services for financial institutions, which may constitute provision of intermediary service, and our agreements with these financial institutions may be deemed as intermediation contracts under the Civil Code of the PRC.

Under the Civil Code of the PRC, if an intermediary conceals any material fact intentionally or provides false information in connection with the conclusion of a proposed transaction, which results in harm to a client’s interests, the intermediary may not claim service fees and is liable for any damages caused. We provide recommendation services for financial service providers as part of our real estate financial services, which may constitute provision of intermediary services, and our agreements with these financial service providers may be deemed intermediation contracts under the Civil Code of the PRC. If we intentionally conceal material information or provide false information to financial service providers, or if we fail to identify false information received from users or any third party and in turn provide such information to financial service providers, we could be held liable for damages caused to financial service providers as an intermediary pursuant to the Civil Code of the PRC. Due to the lack of detailed regulations and guidance in this area of financial product recommendation services and the possibility that the PRC government authorities may promulgate new laws and regulations regulating financial product recommendation services in the future, there are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of current or future PRC laws and regulations for financial product recommendation services, and there can be no assurance that the PRC government authority will share our views.

In addition, if the transactions, in which we provide intermediary service, violate the PRC laws and regulations on the real estate financial services, we may not continue to provide the intermediary service for such transactions and our business of provision of intermediary service may be adversely affected.

Regulatory uncertainties relating to real estate-related financial services in China could harm our business, financial condition and results of operation.

Since we historically provided real estate-related financial services, our business may continue to be subject to a variety of PRC laws and regulations governing financial services for such historical practices. The application and interpretation of these laws and regulations are ambiguous and may be interpreted and applied inconsistently between different government authorities. As of the date of this annual report, we have not been subject to any material fines or other penalties under any PRC laws or regulations on our real estate financial services operations. However, if the PRC government adopts a stringent regulatory framework for the real estate-related financial services market in the future, and imposes specific requirements (including licensing requirements) on market participants, our business, financial condition and prospects could be materially and adversely affected. If our historical practice is deemed to violate any existing laws and regulations, we may be subject to penalties as determined by the relevant government authorities.

The successful operation of our business depends upon the performance and reliability of the internet infrastructure and telecommunications networks in China.

Our business depends on the performance and reliability of the internet infrastructure in China. Substantially all access to the internet is maintained through state-controlled telecommunication operators under the administrative control and regulatory supervision of MIIT. In addition, the national networks in China are connected to the internet through international gateways controlled by the PRC government. These international gateways are generally the only websites through which a domestic user can connect to the internet. We cannot assure you that a more sophisticated internet infrastructure will be developed in China. We may not have access to alternative networks in the event of disruptions, failures or other problems with China’s internet infrastructure. In addition, the internet infrastructure in China may not support the demands associated with continued growth in internet usage.

We also rely on China Unicom and China Telecom to provide us with data communications capacity primarily through local telecommunications lines and internet data centers to host our servers. We do not have access to alternative services in the event of disruptions, failures or other problems with the fixed telecommunications networks of China Unicom or China Telecom, or if China Unicom or China Telecom otherwise fails to provide such services. Any unscheduled service interruption could disrupt our operations, damage our reputation and result in a decrease in our revenues. Furthermore, we have no control over the costs of the services provided by China Unicom and China Telecom. If the prices that we pay for telecommunications and internet services rise significantly, our gross margins could be significantly reduced. In addition, if internet access fees or other charges to internet users increase, our user traffic may decrease, which in turn may cause our revenues to decline.

Historically there have been occurrences of unexpected network interruptions and security breaches, including “hacking” or computer virus attacks. Such disruptions in the future would cause delays or interruptions of service, damage our reputation and result in a loss of users of our products, which could harm our business, operating results, and financial condition.

Our business depends heavily on the performance and reliability of China’s internet infrastructure, the continued accessibility of bandwidth and servers on our service providers’ networks and the continuing performance, reliability and availability of our technology platform. We have in the past and are likely again in the future to be subject to unexpected interruptions and security breaches, although to date no such attack has resulted in any material damages or remediation costs. Any failure to maintain the satisfactory performance, reliability, security and availability of our computer and hardware systems may cause significant harm to our reputation and our ability to attract and maintain platform users and visitor traffic. Major risks related to our network infrastructure include:

Computer viruses and hacking attacks may cause delays or other service interruptions and could result in significant damage to our hardware, software systems and databases, disruptions to our business activities, such as to our e-mail and other communication systems, breaches of security and inadvertent disclosure of confidential or sensitive information, inadvertent transmissions of computer viruses and interruptions of access to our website through the use of denial-of-service or similar attacks. In addition, the inadvertent transmission of computer viruses could expose us to a material risk of loss or litigation and possible liability. All of our servers and routers, including back-up servers, are currently hosted by third-party service providers in Beijing, Shenzhen and Shanghai and all information on our website is backed up in real time and daily. Any hacking, security breach or other system disruption or failure which occurs in between our weekly backup procedures could disrupt our business or cause us to lose, and be unable to recover, data such as real estate listings, contact information and other important transaction-related information.

We also do not maintain insurance policies covering losses relating to our systems and do not have business interruption insurance.

Any significant cybersecurity incident or disruption of our information technology systems or those of third-party partners could materially damage our user relationships and subject us to significant reputational, financial, legal and operational consequences.

We depend on our information technology systems, as well as those of third parties, to develop new products and services, host and manage our services, store data and process transactions. For example, all of our cloud storage is provided by Huawei Cloud. Any material disruption or slowdown of our systems or those of third parties whom we depend upon could cause outages or delays in our services, which could harm our brand and adversely affect our operating results. If changes in technology cause our information technology systems, or those of third parties whom we depend upon, to become obsolete, or if our or their information systems are inadequate to handle our growth, we could lose users, and our business and operating results could be adversely affected.

We are subject to risks relating to our leased properties.

Currently, most of our offices are on leased premises. We may not be able to successfully maintain, extend or renew our leases upon the expiration of the current term on commercially reasonable terms or at all, and may therefore be forced to relocate to new offices.

In addition, we have entered into certain lease agreements with parties who have not provided evidence of proper legal title to the leased premises or authorization from the legal owners for sublease of the premises. If such parties are not the legal owners, or if they have not obtained the proper authorization from the legal owners of the premises, we might be forced to relocate. We also have not registered certain of our lease agreements with the relevant government authorities. Under the relevant PRC laws and regulations, we may be required to register and file with the relevant government authority executed leases. Failure to register the lease agreements for our leased properties will not affect the validity of these lease agreements, but housing authorities may order us to register the lease agreements in a prescribed period of time and impose a fine ranging from RMB1,000 to RMB10,000 for each non-registered lease if we fail to complete the registration within the prescribed timeframe.

Potential strategic investments, acquisitions or new business initiatives may disrupt our ability to manage our business effectively.

Strategic investments, acquisitions or new business initiatives and any subsequent integration of new companies or businesses will require significant attention from our management, in particular to ensure that such changes do not disrupt any existing collaborations, or affect our users’ opinion and perception of our products and services. In addition, in the case of acquisitions or new business initiatives our management will need to ensure that the acquired or new business is effectively integrated into our existing operations. The diversion of our management’s attention and any difficulties encountered during integration could have a material adverse effect on our ability to manage our business. In addition, strategic investments, acquisitions or new business initiatives could expose us to potential risks, including:

Our failure to address these risks or other problems encountered in connection with our past or future acquisitions and investments could cause us to fail to realize the anticipated benefits of such acquisitions or investments, incur unanticipated liabilities and harm our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Enforcement of stricter labor laws and regulations and increases in labor costs in the PRC may adversely affect our business and our profitability.

China’s overall economy and the average wage in China have increased in recent years and are expected to continue to grow. The average wage level for our employees has also increased in recent years. We expect that our labor costs, including wages and employee benefits, will continue to increase. Unless we are able to pass on these increased labor costs to our users by increasing commission fees we charge and prices for our products or services, our profitability and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

In addition, we have been subject to stricter regulatory requirements in terms of entering labor contracts with our employees and paying various statutory employee benefits, including pensions, housing fund, medical insurance, work-related injury insurance, unemployment insurance and childbearing insurance to designated government agencies for the benefit of our employees. Pursuant to the PRC Labor Contract Law, as amended, or the Labor Contract law, and its implementation rules, employers are subject to various requirements in terms of signing labor contracts, minimum wages, paying remuneration, determining the term of employees’ probation and unilaterally terminating labor contracts. In the event that we decide to terminate some of our employees or otherwise change our employment or labor practices, the Labor Contract Law and its implementation rules may limit our ability to effect those changes in a desirable or cost-effective manner, which could adversely affect our business and results of operations. Under the PRC Social Insurance Law and the Administrative Measures on Housing Fund, employees are required to participate in pension insurance, work-related injury insurance, medical insurance, unemployment insurance, maternity insurance, and housing funds, employers are required, together with their employees or separately, to pay the social insurance premiums and housing funds for their employees and employers that fail to make adequate social insurance and housing fund contributions may be subject to fines and legal sanctions. We could be deemed to have failed to pay certain social insurance and housing fund contributions under the relevant PRC laws and regulation. If the relevant PRC authorities determine that we shall make supplemental contributions, that we are not in compliance with labor laws and regulations, or that we are subject to fines or other legal sanctions, such as order of timely rectification, and our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

In addition, pursuant to the Labor Contract Law, dispatched labor is only intended to be a supplementary form of employment. The Interim Provisions on Labor Dispatch, which became effective on March 1, 2014, further provides that the number of dispatched workers an employer may use must not exceed 10% of its total labor force. We use dispatched workers from employment agents in the PRC from time to time for provision of services to agents. We cannot assure you that the number of dispatched workers we use has not exceeded 10% of the total number of our employees in the past as we continue to develop and expand our business. If we are deemed to have violated the foregoing limitations, we could be ordered by the relevant labor administrative authorities to rectify within a specified period of time, and could be subject to fines if the rectification is not completed in time to the satisfaction of the labor administrative authorities.

Moreover, as the interpretation and implementation of labor-related laws and regulations are still evolving, we cannot assure you that our employment practice do not and will not violate labor-related laws and regulations in China, which may subject us to labor disputes or government investigations. If we are deemed to have violated relevant labor laws and regulations, we could be required to provide additional compensation to our employees and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Our results of operations are susceptible to fluctuations due to changes of, significant reduction in or discontinuation of government grants.

We received government grants in the amount of RMB22.9 million in 2020, RMB22.3 million in 2021 and RMB14.9 million (US$2.2 million) in 2022. These government grants were extended to support the development of technology companies in China and we are not subject to any specific performance obligations or other terms as a condition of receiving these grants. Although we expect to continue to receive government grants from time to time in the future, the extensions of future grants are at the local governments’ sole discretion. The government incentives grants may be increased, significantly reduced or discontinued for any reasons, which may cause our financial condition and results of operations to fluctuate.

We have identified a material weakness in internal control over financial reporting, and we cannot assure you that additional material weaknesses will not be identified in the future. Our failure to implement and maintain effective internal control over financial reporting could result in failure to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud, or result in material misstatements in our financial statements which could cause investors to lose confidence in our reported financial information and have a negative effect on the price of the ADSs.

We are subject to reporting obligations under the U.S. securities laws. The SEC, as required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, adopted rules requiring every public company to include a management report on such company’s internal control over financial reporting in its annual report, which contains management’s assessment of the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. However, we were not subject to the requirement to provide attestation by our independent registered public accounting firm on effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting for the year ended December 31, 2022 as we qualified as an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, as of December 31, 2022. Once we cease to be an “emerging growth company,” our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting, unless we qualify for other exemptions.

Our management, with the participation of our chief executive officer and financial controller, has performed an evaluation of the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Rule 13a-15(e) under the Exchange Act) as of the end of the period covered by this report, as required by Rule 13a-15(b) under the Exchange Act. Based upon that evaluation, our management has concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was ineffective as of December 31, 2022 due to one “material weakness” in our internal control over financial reporting. As defined in the standards established by the U.S. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, or PCAOB, a “material weakness” is a deficiency, or combination of deficiencies, in internal control over financial reporting, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the annual or interim financial statements will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis.

The material weakness identified related to the lack of sufficient financial reporting and accounting personnel with appropriate understanding of U.S. GAAP to implement formal period-end financial reporting policies and procedures, to address complex U.S. GAAP technical accounting issues, and to prepare and review our consolidated financial statements and related disclosures in accordance with U.S. GAAP and financial reporting requirements set forth by the SEC. Following the identification of the material weakness, we have taken measures and plan to continue to take measures to remedy these deficiencies. For details of these remedies, see “Item 15. Controls and Procedures.” However, the implementation of these measures may not fully address the material weakness and deficiencies in our internal control over financial reporting, and we cannot conclude that they have been fully remedied. Our failure to correct the material weakness and other control deficiencies or our failure to discover and address any other material weakness could result in inaccuracies in our financial statements and could also impair our ability to comply with applicable financial reporting requirements and related regulatory filings on a timely basis. As a result, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs, may be materially and adversely affected. Additionally, ineffective internal control over financial reporting could expose us to increased risk of fraud or misuse of corporate assets and subject us to potential delisting from the stock exchange on which we list, regulatory investigations and civil or criminal sanctions.

In addition, once we cease to be an “emerging growth company” as such term is defined in the JOBS Act, our independent registered public accounting firm must attest to and report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting. Even if our management concludes that our internal control over financial reporting is effective in the future, our independent registered public accounting firm, after conducting its own independent testing, may issue a report that is qualified if it is not satisfied with our internal controls or the level at which our controls are documented, designed, operated or reviewed, or if it interprets the relevant requirements differently from us.

We have been and may continue to be subject to legal and administrative proceedings from time to time. If the outcomes of these proceedings are adverse to us, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, results of operations and financial condition.

We have been, and may from time to time in the future, be subject to various legal and administrative proceedings arising in the ordinary course of our business. As we routinely enter into business contracts with real estate developers, sellers, agencies and agents, housing buyers, and other marketplace participants, we have been and may continue to be involved in legal proceedings arising from contract disputes. In response to the heightened credit risks of real estate developers amid the downturn status of China’s real estate market in 2021 and 2022, we have initiated an increased number of lawsuits against real estate developers to protect our accounts receivable. In the meantime, as commissions are payable to real estate agencies by us after we have collected payments from real estate developers, we have also seen an increased number of lawsuits initiated by real estate agencies against us. We believe these lawsuits are immaterial to our company on an individual basis or a collective basis. However, regardless of the outcome, litigations or other legal or administrative proceedings may result in substantial costs and diversion of management resources and attention.

In addition, we may also receive formal and informal inquiries from government authorities and regulators regarding our compliance with laws and regulations, many of which are evolving and subject to interpretation. Claims arising out of actual or alleged violations of law could be asserted against us by developers and real estate sellers, agents, real estate buyers, competitors, or governmental entities in civil or criminal investigations and proceedings or by other entities. These claims could be asserted under a variety of laws in different jurisdictions, including but not limited to internet information services laws, intellectual property laws, unfair competition laws, data protection and privacy laws, labor and employment laws, securities laws, real estate laws, tort laws, contract laws, property laws and employee benefit laws.

There is no guarantee that we will be successful in defending ourselves in legal and administrative actions or in asserting our rights under various laws. Even if we are successful in our attempt to defend ourselves in legal and administrative actions or to assert our rights under various laws, enforcing our rights against the various parties involved may be expensive, time-consuming and ultimately futile. These actions could expose us to negative publicity and to substantial monetary damages and legal defense costs, injunctive relief and criminal and civil fines and penalties, including but not limited to suspension or revocation of licenses to conduct business.

We are subject to changing laws and regulations regarding regulatory matters, corporate governance and public disclosure that have increased both our costs and the risk of non-compliance.

We are subject to rules and regulations by various governing bodies, including, for example, the Securities and Exchange Commission, which is charged with the protection of investors and the oversight of companies whose securities are publicly traded, and the various regulatory authorities in China and the Cayman Islands, and to new and evolving regulatory measures under applicable law. Our efforts to comply with new and changing laws and regulations have resulted in and are likely to continue to result in, increased general and administrative expenses and a diversion of management time and attention from revenue-generating activities to compliance activities.

Moreover, because these laws, regulations and standards are subject to varying interpretations, their application in practice may evolve over time as new guidance becomes available. This evolution may result in continuing uncertainty regarding compliance matters and additional costs necessitated by ongoing revisions to our disclosure and governance practices. If we fail to address or comply with these regulations or any subsequent changes, we may be subject to penalty and our business may be harmed.

We have limited insurance coverage which could expose us to significant costs and business disruption.

The insurance industry in China is still in an early stage of development and PRC insurance companies offer only limited business insurance products. While we maintain some insurance policies to safeguard against risks and unexpected events, we do not maintain business interruption insurance or litigation insurance coverage for our operations in China. Any business disruption, litigation or natural disaster may cause us to incur substantial costs and result in the diversion of our resources, as well as significantly disrupt our operations, and have a material adverse effect on our business, financial position and results of operations. Moreover, to improve our performance and to prevent disruption of our services, we may have to make substantial investments to deploy additional servers or create one or more copies of our website to mirror our online resources, either of which could increase our expenses and reduce our net income.

In addition to COVID-19, we face risks related to other health epidemics and natural disasters, which could significantly disrupt our operations and adversely affect our business, financial condition or results of operation.

In addition to the impact of COVID-19, our business could be adversely affected by the effects of Ebola virus disease, H1N1 flu, H7N9 flu, avian flu, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, or SARS, or other epidemics. Our business operations could be disrupted if any of our employees is suspected of having any of these epidemics, since it could require our employees to be quarantined and/or our offices to be disinfected. In addition, to the extent that any of these epidemics harms the Chinese economy in general, our results of operations and financial performance could be adversely affected.

We are also vulnerable to natural disasters and other calamities. Fire, floods, typhoons, earthquakes, power loss, telecommunications failures, break-ins, war, riots, terrorist attacks or similar events may give rise to server interruptions, breakdowns, system failures, technology platform failures or internet failures, which could cause the loss or corruption of data or malfunctions of software or hardware as well as adversely affect our ability to provide products and services on our platform.

Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure

If the PRC government deems that our contractual arrangements with the VIE do not comply with PRC regulatory restrictions on foreign investment in the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations.

Foreign ownership in the business involving value-added telecommunications service (except for e-commerce, domestic conferencing, store-and-forward, and call center services), including internet real estate services, is subject to significant restrictions under current PRC laws, rules and regulations. Our holding company is a Cayman Islands company, and one of its wholly owned subsidiaries in PRC, Shenzhen Fangdd, which we refer to as our WFOE, is considered a foreign-invested enterprise. Since our business involves provision of the value-added telecommunications service, we conduct our business in China, including our online business for new and resale properties transaction services, our rental services, and other services, primarily through Fangdd Network, and its subsidiaries. We have gained control over Fangdd Network through a series of contractual arrangements by and between our WFOE, Fangdd Network and its shareholders, and we refer to Fangdd Network as the VIE. The VIE and its subsidiaries have the licenses, approvals or fillings with relevant authorities that are essential for our business operations.

We have entered into, through our WFOE, a series of contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders. These contractual arrangements enable us to (i) direct the activities that most significantly affect the economic performance of the VIE and its subsidiaries; (ii) receive substantially all of the economic benefits from the VIE and its subsidiaries in consideration for the services provided by the WFOE; and (iii) have an exclusive option to purchase all or part of the equity interest in the VIE or to all or part of the assets of the VIE, when and to the extent permitted by PRC law, or request any existing shareholder of the VIE to transfer all or part of the equity interest in the VIE to another PRC person or entity designated by us at any time in our discretion.

These agreements make us their “primary beneficiary” for accounting purposes under U.S. GAAP. For descriptions of these contractual arrangements, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—C. Organizational Structure—Contractual Agreements with the VIE and its Shareholders.” We believe that our corporate structure and contractual arrangements comply with the current applicable PRC laws and regulations. Our PRC legal counsel, based on its understanding of the relevant laws and regulations, is of the opinion that each of the contracts among our WFOE, the consolidated VIE and the VIE’s shareholders is valid, binding and enforceable in accordance with its terms. However, our PRC legal counsel has also advised us that there are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of PRC laws and regulations, including the Foreign Investment Law (2019), Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules and the Telecommunications Regulations and the relevant regulatory measures concerning the telecommunications industry. Accordingly, the PRC regulatory authorities may take a view that is contrary to the opinion of our PRC legal counsel. There can be no assurance that the PRC government authorities, such as the Ministry of Commerce, or the MOFCOM, the MIIT, or other authorities that regulate our business and other participants in the telecommunications industry, would agree that our corporate structure or any of the above contractual arrangements comply with PRC licensing, registration or other regulatory requirements, with existing policies or with requirements or policies that may be adopted in the future. PRC laws and regulations governing the validity of these contractual arrangements are uncertain and the relevant government authorities have broad discretion in interpreting these laws and regulations.

We believe that our corporate structure and contractual arrangements comply with the current applicable PRC laws and regulations. As of the date of this annual report, based on the opinion of our PRC legal counsel, we believe that our WFOE and the VIE are not subject to permission requirements from the CSRC, CAC, nor any other entity to approve these contractual arrangements. However, PRC laws and regulations governing the approval of these contractual arrangements are uncertain and the relevant government authorities have broad discretion in interpreting these laws and regulations. Accordingly, the PRC regulatory authorities may take a view that is contrary to the view of our PRC counsel. There can be no assurance that the PRC government authorities such as the Ministry of Commerce, or the MOFCOM, the MIIT, or other authorities that regulate our business and other participants in the telecommunications industry, would agree that our corporate structure or any of the above contractual arrangements comply with PRC licensing, registration or other regulatory requirements, with existing policies or with requirements or policies that may be adopted in the future. PRC laws and regulations governing the approval of these contractual arrangements are uncertain and the relevant government authorities have broad discretion in interpreting these laws and regulations. As of the date of this annual report, we have not received any inquiry, notice, warning, or sanctions regarding our corporate structure and contractual arrangements from the CSRC, CAC or any other PRC government authorities. If we inadvertently conclude that approvals are not required, or if these regulations change or are interpreted differently and we are required to obtain approval in the future, our shares may decline in value or become worthless if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of the VIE and its subsidiaries that conduct all or substantially all of our operations. If the PRC government determines that these contractual arrangements do not comply with its restrictions on foreign investment in the internet business, if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change or are interpreted differently in the future, or if the PRC government otherwise finds that we, the VIE, or any of its subsidiaries is in violation of PRC laws or regulations or lack the necessary permits or licenses to operate our business, the relevant PRC regulatory authorities, including but not limited to the MIIT, which regulates internet information service companies, would have broad discretion in dealing with such violations, including:

The imposition of any of these penalties could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. If any of these penalties results in our inability to direct the activities of the VIE that most significantly impact its economic performance, and/or our failure to receive the economic benefits from the VIE, we may not be able to consolidate the financial results of the VIE and its subsidiaries in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. In addition, our shares may decline in value or become worthless if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of the VIE and its subsidiaries that conduct all or substantially all of our operations.

We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders to exercise control over our business, which may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing operational control.

Since the applicable PRC laws, rules and regulations restrict foreign ownership in the value-added telecommunications services, we conduct our online real estate service and derive related revenues through the contractual arrangements with the VIE. We rely on contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders for our business operations, and these contractual arrangements may not be as effective as direct ownership in providing us with control over the VIE. We rely on the performance by the VIE and its shareholders of their obligations under the contracts to exercise control over the VIE. The shareholders of the VIE may not act in the best interests of us or may not perform their obligations under these contracts. Such risks exist throughout the period in which we intend to operate certain portion of our business through the contractual arrangements with the VIE. As we have no direct or indirect ownership interest in the VIE, these contractual arrangements, including the voting proxies granted to us, may not be as effective in providing us with control over these companies as direct or indirect ownership. If we were the controlling shareholder of the VIE with direct or indirect ownership, we would be able to exercise our rights as shareholders to effect changes in the board of directors, which in turn could effect change, subject to any applicable fiduciary obligations, at the management level. Since we control the VIE through contractual arrangements, if the VIE or its shareholders fail to perform their obligations under these contractual arrangements, we may be forced to (i) incur substantial costs and resources to enforce such arrangements, including the voting proxies, and (ii) rely on legal remedies available under PRC law, including exercising our call option right over the equity interest in the VIE or the assets of the VIE, seeking specific performance or injunctive relief, and claiming monetary damages. See “—Any failure by the VIE or its shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on our business.” In the event that we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements, or if we suffer significant time delays or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

The equity and asset transfer and foreclosure of pledge in accordance with our contractual arrangements shall be subject to procedures required by relevant PRC authorities. In addition, the equity and asset transfer price may be subject to review and tax adjustment by the relevant tax authority.

The shareholders of the VIE may have potential conflicts of interest with us, which may materially and adversely affect our business and financial condition.

The VIE is currently 31.95% owned by Yi Duan, 19.75% owned by Jiancheng Li, 16.87% owned by Xi Zeng, 9.0% owned by Wei Zhang, 8.87% owned by Li Zhou, 8.0% owned by Jingjing Huang, 2.66% owned by Jiaorong Pan, 2.0% owned by Wentao Bai and 0.9% owned by Ying Lu, respectively. Yi Duan, Xi Zeng and Jiancheng Li are our co-founders. Jiaorong Pan is our director and chief operating officer. However, we cannot assure you that these shareholders would not have potential conflicts of interest with us. If they breach, or cause the VIE to breach, or refuse to renew, the existing contractual arrangements we have with them and the VIE, our ability to effectively control the VIE and receive economic benefits from the VIE and its subsidiaries would be materially and adversely affected. For example, the shareholders may be able to cause our agreements with the VIE to be performed in a manner adverse to us by, among other things, failing to remit payments due under the contractual arrangements to us on a timely basis. We cannot assure you that when conflicts of interest arise, any or all of these shareholders will act in the best interests of our company or such conflicts will be resolved in our favor.

Currently, we do not have any arrangements to address potential conflicts of interest between these shareholders and our company. For the shareholders who are also our directors and executive officers, we rely on them to abide by the laws of the Cayman Islands and China, which provide that the directors owe a fiduciary duty to the company that requires them to act in good faith and in what they believe to be the best interests of the company and not to use their position for personal gain. There is currently no specific and clear guidance under PRC laws that address any conflict between PRC law and Cayman Islands law in respect of any conflict relating to corporate governance. If we cannot resolve any conflict of interest or dispute between us and the shareholders of the VIE, we would have to rely on legal proceedings, which could result in disruption of our business and subject us to substantial uncertainty as to the outcome of any such legal proceedings.

Any failure by the VIE or its shareholders to perform their obligations under our contractual arrangements with them would have a material and adverse effect on our business.

We refer to the shareholders of the VIE as its nominee shareholders because although they are the holders on record of equity interest in the VIE, pursuant to the terms of the relevant power of attorney, each such shareholder has irrevocably authorized Jiancheng Li, a director of our WFOE, or another person designated by our WFOE in case Jiancheng Li ceases to be the WFOE’s director, to exercise his or her rights as a shareholder of the VIE. However, if the VIE or its shareholders fail to perform their respective obligations under the contractual arrangements, we may have to incur substantial costs and expend additional resources to enforce such arrangements. We may also have to rely on legal remedies under PRC law, including seeking specific performance or injunctive relief, and claiming damages, which we cannot assure will be effective under PRC law. For example, if the shareholders of the VIE refuse to transfer their equity interest in the VIE to us or our designee when we exercise the purchase option pursuant to these contractual arrangements, or if they otherwise act in bad faith toward us, then we may have to take legal actions to compel them to perform their contractual obligations.

All of the agreements under our contractual arrangements are governed by PRC law and provide for the resolution of disputes through arbitration or litigation. Accordingly, these contracts would be interpreted in accordance with PRC law and any disputes would be resolved through arbitration in Hong Kong or litigation in PRC. The legal system in the PRC is not as developed as in some other jurisdictions, such as the United States. As a result, uncertainties in the PRC legal system could limit our ability to enforce these contractual arrangements. See “—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—The PRC legal system contains uncertainties, which could limit the legal protections available to you and us.” Meanwhile, there are very few precedents and little formal guidance as to how contractual arrangements in the context of a VIE should be interpreted or enforced under PRC law. There remain significant uncertainties regarding the ultimate outcome of such arbitration should legal action become necessary. In addition, rulings by arbitrators are final, parties cannot appeal the arbitration results in courts, and if the losing parties fail to carry out the arbitration awards within a prescribed time limit, the prevailing parties may only enforce the arbitration awards in PRC courts through arbitration award recognition proceedings, which would require additional expenses and delay. In the event we are unable to enforce these contractual arrangements, or if we suffer significant delays or other obstacles in the process of enforcing these contractual arrangements, we may not be able to exert effective control over the VIE, and our ability to conduct our business may be negatively affected.

Our contractual arrangements with the VIE may be subject to scrutiny by the PRC tax authorities and they may determine that we or the VIE owe additional taxes, which could negatively affect our financial condition and the value of your investment.

Pursuant to applicable PRC laws and regulations, arrangements and transactions among related parties may be subject to audit or challenge by the PRC tax authorities within ten years after the taxable year when the transactions are conducted. Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law effective as of January 1, 2008, every enterprise in China must submit its annual enterprise income tax return together with a report on transactions with its related parties to the relevant tax authorities. The PRC tax authorities may impose reasonable adjustments on taxation if they have identified any related party transactions that are inconsistent with arm’s length principles and we may face material and adverse tax consequences. If the PRC tax authorities determine that the contractual arrangements between our WFOE, the VIE and its shareholders were not entered into on an arm’s-length basis in such a way resulting in an impermissible reduction in taxes, they may adjust the VIE’ income in the form of a transfer pricing adjustment. A transfer pricing adjustment could, among other things, reduce expense deductions recorded by the VIE for PRC tax purposes, which could, in turn, increase its tax liabilities without reducing the WFOE’ tax expenses. In addition, if the WFOE requests the VIE’s shareholders to transfer their equity interest in VIE at nominal or no value, or the WFOE requests the VIE to transfer its assets at nominal or no value pursuant to the contractual agreements, such transfer could be viewed as a gift and subject the WFOE to PRC income tax. Furthermore, the PRC tax authorities may impose late payment fees and other penalties on the VIE for the adjusted but unpaid taxes according to the applicable regulations. Our financial position and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected if the VIE’ tax liabilities increase or if they are required to pay late payment fees and other penalties.

Any unauthorized use of indicia of corporate power or authority would have a material adverse effect on our business.

In China, a company chop or seal serves as the legal representation of the company towards third parties even when unaccompanied by a signature. Each legally registered company in China is required to maintain a company chop, which must be registered with the local Public Security Bureau. In addition to this mandatory company chop, companies may have several other chops which can be used for specific purposes. The chops of our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and its subsidiaries are generally held securely by personnel designated or approved by us in accordance with our internal control procedures. To the extent those chops are not kept safe, are stolen or are used by unauthorized persons or for unauthorized purposes, the corporate governance of these entities could be severely and adversely compromised and those corporate entities may be bound to abide by the terms of any documents so chopped, even if they were chopped by an individual who lacked the requisite power and authority to do so.

We may lose the ability to utilize assets held by the VIE that are important to the operation of our business if the VIE goes bankrupt or becomes subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding.

Our WFOE is considered foreign-invested enterprise in China and is, therefore, not permitted under the current PRC laws, rules and regulations to hold the ICP license that are critical to our operations. The VIE, therefore, holds the ICP License required for operating our website and our mobile applications in China. Under our contractual arrangements, the shareholders of the VIE may not approve the VIE to sell, transfer, mortgage or dispose of its assets or legal or beneficial interests in the business in any manner without our prior consent. However, in the event that the shareholders breach this obligation and voluntarily liquidate the VIE, or the VIE declares bankruptcy, or all or part of its assets become subject to liens or rights of third-party creditors, we may be unable to continue some or all of our operations, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Furthermore, if the VIE or its subsidiaries undergo a voluntary or involuntary liquidation proceeding, its shareholders or unrelated third-party creditors may claim rights to some or all of its assets, hindering our ability to operate our business, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Substantial uncertainties exist with respect to the interpretation and implementation of the Foreign Investment Law (2019) and how they may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and operations.

The value-added telecommunications services that we conduct through the VIE and its subsidiaries are subject to foreign investment restrictions set forth in the Special Management Measures (Negative List) for the Access of Foreign Investment issued by MOFCOM and the National Development and Reform Commission, effective January 2022.

On March 15, 2019, the National People’s Congress promulgated the Foreign Investment Law, or the Foreign Investment Law (2019), which became effective on January 1, 2020 and replaced the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Enterprise Law, the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Joint Venture Enterprise Law and the Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprise Law to become the legal foundation for foreign investment in the PRC. The Foreign Investment Law (2019) mainly focuses on foreign investment promotion, foreign investment protection and foreign investment management. The Foreign Investment Law (2019) does not mention the concept of “actual control,”, nor does it specify the regulation on controlling via contractual arrangements. However, since it is relatively new, uncertainties still exist in relation to its interpretation and implementation. For instance, under the Foreign Investment Law (2019), “foreign investment” refers to the investment activities directly or indirectly conducted by foreign individuals, enterprises or other entities in China. Though it does not explicitly classify contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment, there is no assurance that foreign investment via contractual arrangements would not be interpreted as a type of indirect foreign investment activities in the future. In addition, the definition of foreign investment contains a catch-all provision that includes investments made by foreign investors through other means stipulated in laws, administrative regulations or provisions of the State Council. Therefore, it still leaves leeway for future laws, administrative regulations or provisions promulgated by the State Council to provide for contractual arrangements as a form of foreign investment. In any of these cases, it will be uncertain whether our contractual arrangements will be deemed to be in violation of the market access requirements for foreign investment under the PRC laws and regulations. If further actions shall be taken under future laws, administrative regulations or provisions of the State Council, we may face substantial uncertainties as to whether we can complete such actions. Failure to do so could materially and adversely affect our current corporate structure, corporate governance and operations.

Risks Related to Doing Business in China

The PRC government’s significant oversight over our business operation could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs.

We conduct our business in China primarily through our PRC subsidiaries and the VIE. Our operations in China are governed by PRC laws and regulations. The PRC government’s significant oversight over our business operation could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs. The Chinese government may intervene or influence our operations at any time, or may exert more control over offerings conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers, which could result in a material change in our operations and/or the value of our ADSs. Any actions by the Chinese government to exert more oversight and control over offerings that are conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers could significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors and cause the value of such securities to significantly decline or become worthless.

There are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of PRC laws and regulations, including, but not limited to, the laws and regulations governing our and the VIE’s business, or the enforcement and performance of our contractual arrangements with the VIE. These laws and regulations may be subject to change, the enforcement of laws and regulations in China could be uncertain and the rules and policies in China may change quickly with little advance notice, which could result in a material adverse change in our operations and the value of our ADSs. New laws and regulations that affect existing and proposed future businesses may also be applied retroactively. Due to the uncertainty and complexity of the regulatory environment, we cannot assure you that we and the VIE would always be in full compliance with applicable laws and regulations, the violation of which may have an adverse effect on our and the VIE’s business and our reputation. Also, the PRC government has recently indicated an intent to exert more oversight over offerings that are conducted overseas and/or foreign investment in China-based issuers. Any such action could significantly limit or completely hinder our ability to offer or continue to offer securities to investors. In addition, implementation of industry-wide regulations directly targeting our operations could cause our securities to significantly decline in value or become worthless. Therefore, investors of our company face potential uncertainty from actions taken by the PRC government affecting our business.

The approval of and the filing with the CSRC, CAC or other PRC governmental authorities may be required in connection with our future offshore offerings under PRC law and if required, we cannot predict whether or how soon we will be able to obtain such approval or complete such filing.

On February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated a set of new regulations, including the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offerings and Listings by Domestic Companies, or the Trial Measures, and five supporting guidelines. The regulations came into effect on March 31, 2023. The Trial Measures refine the regulatory system by subjecting both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing activities to the CSRC filing-based administration. Requirements for filing entities, time points and procedures are specified. Where a PRC domestic company indirectly offers and lists securities in overseas markets, the issuer shall designate a major domestic operating entity to file with the CSRC. Companies, like us, that are already listed overseas as of March 31, 2023 are not required to make an immediate filing with the CSRC until a subsequent offering, in which case a filing should be made with the CSRC within three business days after the offering is completed. Failure to complete the filing required by the Trial Measures may result in a warning and a fine between RMB1 million and RMB10 million. However, uncertainty remains as to the interpretation and implementation of the Trial Measures and five supporting guidelines upon promulgation.

The Regulations on Mergers and Acquisitions of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors, or the M&A Rules, among other things, requires offshore special purpose vehicles formed for the purpose of an overseas listing and controlled by PRC companies or individuals, to obtain the CSRC approval prior to listing their securities on an overseas stock exchange. The interpretation and application of the regulations remain unclear. Our PRC legal counsel has advised us that, based on their understanding of the current PRC laws, the CSRC approval is not required under the M&A Rules for our offshore offerings because the ownership structures of our PRC subsidiaries and VIE were not established through acquisition of equity interest or assets of any PRC domestic company by foreign entities as defined under the M&A Rules. However, we have been advised by our PRC legal counsel that there are uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of the PRC law, and there can be no assurance that the PRC government will ultimately take a view that is not contrary to the above opinion of our PRC legal counsel. If it is determined that the CSRC approval is required for our offshore offerings, we may face sanctions by the CSRC or other PRC regulatory agencies for failure to seek the CSRC approval for such offerings.

Furthermore, relevant PRC governmental authorities promulgated the Opinions on Strictly Cracking Down Illegal Securities Activities, which provided that the administration and supervision of overseas-listed China-based companies will be strengthened, and the special provisions of the State Council on overseas issuance and listing of shares by such companies will be revised, clarifying the responsibilities of domestic industry competent authorities and regulatory authorities. However, the Opinions on Strictly Cracking Down Illegal Securities Activities were only issued recently, leaving uncertainties regarding the interpretation and implementation of these opinions. It is possible that any new rules or regulations may impose additional requirements on us.

The draft Regulations for the Administration of Cyber Data Security, or the Draft Data Security Regulations, published by the CAC on November 14, 2021 for public comments until December 13, 2021 require that a data processor who processes personal information of more than 1 million individuals shall (i) go through the cyber security review if it intends to be listed in a foreign country; (ii) report to the local CAC within 15 working days once identifying any important data. Where data processors conduct merger, reorganization separation, or otherwise, the data recipient shall continue to perform its data security protection obligations, and the data processor shall report to the local competent department if personal information of more than one million people is involved. The Draft Data Security Regulations also require a data processor processing important data or being listed outside China shall carry out data security assessment annually by itself or through a third-party data security service provider and submit assessment report to local agency of the CAC. As no detailed rules or implementation of the Draft Data Security Regulations have been issued, the CAC and the PRC governmental authorities may have wide discretion in the interpretation and enforcement of these regulations. It also remains uncertain whether the future regulatory changes would impose additional restrictions on companies like us. If the enacted version of the Draft Data Security Regulations requires any clearance of cybersecurity review and other specific actions to be completed by companies like us, we face uncertainties as to whether such clearance can be timely obtained, or at all. On December 28, 2021, the CAC and 12 other regulatory authorities jointly issued the Cyber Security Review Measures. The Cyber Security Review Measures provide, among others, (i) the purchase of cyber products and services by critical information infrastructure operators that affects or may affect national security and the data processing activities engage in by network platform operators that affect or may affect national security shall be subject to the cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office, the department which is responsible for the implementation of cybersecurity review under the CAC; and (ii) the network platform operators with personal information data of more than one million users that seek for listing in a foreign country are obliged to apply for a cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office. However, the Cyber Security Review Measures do not provide any explanation or interpretation of “affect or may affect national security”, and Chinese government may have broad discretion in interpreting and enforcing these laws and regulations. We cannot predict the impact of the Cyber Security Review Measures, if any, at this stage, and we will closely monitor and assess the statutory developments in this regard. As of the date of this annual report, we have not received any inquiry, notice, warning, or sanctions regarding offshore offering from the CAC or any other PRC governmental authorities.

If it is determined in the future that a filing with the CSRC or other procedural requirements are required to be met for and prior to an offering, it is uncertain whether we can or how long it will take us to complete such filing or procedures and any such filing could be rescinded. Any failure to obtain or delay in obtaining such filing or completing such procedures for an offering, or a rescission of any such filing, may subject us to sanctions by the relevant PRC governmental authorities. The governmental authorities may impose restrictions and penalties on our operations in China that could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects, as well as the trading price of the ADSs. The PRC governmental authorities may also take actions requiring us, or making it advisable for us, to halt an offering before settlement and delivery of the ADSs offered hereby. Consequently, if you engage in market trading or other activities in anticipation of and prior to settlement and delivery, you do so at the risk that settlement and delivery may not occur. In addition, if the PRC governmental authorities later promulgate new rules or explanations requiring that we obtain their approvals for filings, registrations or other kinds of authorizations for an offering, we cannot assure you that we can obtain the approval, authorizations, or complete required procedures or other requirements in a timely manner, or at all, or obtain a waiver of the requisite requirements if and when procedures are established to obtain such a waiver.

Changes in PRC government policies or political or social conditions could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth in China, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business and operations are primarily conducted in China. Accordingly, our financial condition and results of operations have been, and are expected to continue to be, affected by the economic, political and social developments in relation to the internet, online marketing and real estate industries in China. A slowdown of economic growth in China could reduce sales of real estate and related products and services, which in turn could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, the increased global focus on social, ethical and environmental issues may lead to China’s adoption of more stringent standards in these areas, which may adversely impact the operations of China-based companies including us. See “—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Our business is susceptible to fluctuations in China’s real estate market, its overall economic growth and government measures aimed at China’s real estate industry.” for more information.

The Chinese economy differs from the economies of most developed countries in many respects, including a higher level of government involvement, the ongoing development of a market-oriented economy, a higher level of control over foreign exchange, and a less efficient allocation of resources.

While the PRC economy has experienced significant growth since the late 1970s, growth has been uneven, both geographically and among various sectors of the economy. The PRC government has implemented various measures to encourage economic growth and guide the allocation of resources. These measures are intended to benefit the overall PRC economy, but may also have a negative effect on us. For example, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected by PRC government control over capital investments or changes in tax regulations that are applicable to us.

The PRC economy has been transitioning from a centrally-planned economy to a more market-oriented economy. Although the PRC government has implemented measures since the late 1970s which emphasize the utilization of market forces for economic reform, the PRC government continues to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. The PRC government also exercises significant control over China’s economic growth through the allocation of resources, controlling payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policy and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies.

The PRC legal system contains uncertainties, which could limit the legal protections available to you and us.

In 1979, the PRC government began to promulgate a comprehensive system of laws and regulations governing economic matters in general. The overall effect of legislation over the past four decades has significantly enhanced the protections afforded to various forms of foreign investment in China. These PRC subsidiaries are subject to laws and regulations applicable to foreign-invested enterprises in China. In particular, they are subject to PRC laws, rules and regulations governing foreign companies’ ownership and operation of Internet information services as well as of the real estate sector. Such laws and regulations are subject to change, and their interpretation and enforcement involve uncertainties, which could limit the legal protections available to us and our investors. In addition, we cannot predict the effect of future developments in the PRC legal system, including the promulgation of new laws, changes to existing laws or the interpretation or enforcement of such laws, or the preemption of local regulations by PRC laws, rules and regulations.

Moreover, China has a civil law system based on written statutes, which, unlike common law systems, is a system in which decided judicial cases have little precedential value. Furthermore, interpretation of statutes and regulations may be subject to government policies reflecting domestic political changes. The relative inexperience of China’s judiciary in many cases creates additional uncertainty as to the outcome of litigation. In addition, enforcement of existing laws or contracts based on existing laws may be uncertain and sporadic, and it may be difficult to obtain swift and equitable enforcement within China. All such uncertainties could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may be deemed to operate a financing guarantee business by the PRC regulatory authorities.

In August 2017, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on the Administration of Financing Guarantee Companies, or the Financing Guarantee Rules which became effective on October 1, 2017. Pursuant to the Financing Guarantee Rules, “financing guarantee” refers to the activities in which guarantors provide guarantee to the guaranteed parties as to loans, bonds or other types of debt financing, and “financing guarantee companies” refer to companies legally established and operating financing guarantee business. According to the Financing Guarantee Rules, the establishment of financing guarantee companies is subject to the approval by the relevant governmental authority, and unless otherwise stipulated, no entity may operate financing guarantee business without such approval. If any entity violates these regulations and operates financing guarantee business without approval, the entity may be subject to penalties including ban or suspension of business, fines of RMB500,000 (US$78,461) to RMB1,000,000 (US$156,922), confiscation of illegal gains if any, and criminal liability if the violation constitutes a criminal offense.

Due to the lack of further interpretations, the exact definition and scope of “operating financing guarantee business” under the Financing Guarantee Rules is unclear. It is uncertain whether we would be deemed to operate financing guarantee and loan businesses because of our current arrangements with certain financial institutions. Furthermore, pursuant to a notice jointly issued by the People’s Bank of China, or the PBOC, and the China Banking Regulatory Commission, or the CBRC, on December 1, 2017, a bank participating in loan facilitation transactions may not accept credit enhancement service from a third party which is not a financing guarantee company, including credit enhancement service in the form of a “buy-back” commitment. If the relevant regulatory authorities determine that such prohibition is applicable to the financing arrangements we facilitate/participate in, we may be required to obtain approval or license for financing guarantee and loan businesses to continue our collaboration arrangement with certain financial institutions. If we are no longer able to maintain our current arrangement with these financial institutions, or become subject to penalties, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects could be materially and adversely affected.

Regulation and censorship of information disseminated over the internet in China may adversely affect our business, and we may be liable for information displayed on, retrieved from or linked to our websites and mobile applications.

The PRC government has adopted regulations governing internet access and the distribution of information over the internet. Under these regulations, internet content providers and internet publishers are prohibited from posting or displaying over the internet content that, among other things, impairs the national dignity of China, contains terrorism or extremism content, or is reactionary, obscene, superstitious, fraudulent or defamatory, or otherwise violates PRC laws and regulations. Failure to comply with these requirements may result in the revocation of licenses to provide internet content and the closure of the concerned websites and applications. The website operator may also be held liable for such censored information displayed on or linked to the website.

In addition, the MIIT has published regulations that subject website operators to potential liability for content displayed on their websites and for the actions of users and others using their systems, including liability for violations of PRC laws prohibiting the dissemination of content deemed to be socially destabilizing. The Ministry of Public Security has the authority to order any local internet service provider to block any internet website at its sole discretion. From time to time, the Ministry of Public Security has stopped the dissemination over the internet of information which it believes to be socially destabilizing. The State Administration for the Protection of State Secrets is also authorized to block any website it deems to be leaking state secrets or failing to meet the relevant regulations related to the protection of state secrets in the dissemination of online information.

Although we attempt to monitor the illicit content posted by users on our platform, we may not be able to effectively control or restrict illicit content (including comments as well as pictures, videos and other multimedia content) generated or placed on our platform by our users. To the extent that PRC regulatory authorities find any content displayed on our platform inappropriate, they may require us to limit or eliminate the dissemination of such information on our platform. Failure to do so may subject us to liabilities and penalties and may even result in the temporary blockage or complete shutdown of our online operations. If this were to happen, our business and results of operations would be materially and adversely affected.

The discontinuation of any of the preferential tax treatments currently available to us in China could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

We currently enjoy certain preferential tax treatment in the PRC. For example, Fangdd Network was qualified as a “high and new technology enterprise” and entitled to a reduced enterprise income tax rate of 15% in 2022. However, under the Administrative Rules for the Certification of High and New Technology Enterprises issued in January 2016, the qualification of a “high and new technology enterprise” is subject to annual evaluation and a review every three years by the relevant authorities in China. There is no assurance that Fangdd Network will continue to meet the applicable criteria for such qualification or enjoy the preferential tax rate at the same level in the future. Moreover, Fangdd Network currently enjoys preferential tax treatment with regard to its research and development expenses, and we cannot assure you that such treatment will continue at the current level, or at all. If we are not able to continue to enjoy our current preferential tax treatment, our financial condition and results of operations can be adversely affected.

Dividends we receive from our subsidiaries located in the PRC may be subject to PRC withholding tax, which could materially and adversely affect the amount of dividends, if any, we may pay our shareholders.

The PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law classifies enterprises as resident enterprises and non-resident enterprises. The PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law provides that an income tax rate of 20% may be applicable to dividends payable to non-resident investors, which (i) do not have an establishment or place of business in the PRC, or (ii) have an establishment or place of business in the PRC but the relevant income is not effectively connected with the establishment or place of business, to the extent such dividends are derived from sources within the PRC. The State Council of the PRC reduced such rate to 10% through the implementation regulations of the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law. Further, pursuant to the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement between Hong Kong and Mainland China, or the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement, and the Notice on Certain Issues with Respect to the Enforcement of Dividend Provisions in Tax Treaties issued in February 2009 by the State Administration of Taxation of the PRC, or the SAT, if a Hong Kong resident enterprise owns more than 25% of the equity interest in a company in China at all times during the 12-month period immediately prior to obtaining a dividend from such company, the 10% withholding tax on dividends is reduced to 5% provided certain other conditions and requirements under the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement and other applicable PRC laws are satisfied at the discretion of relevant PRC tax authority.

If our Cayman Islands holding company and our Hong Kong subsidiary are considered as non-resident enterprises and our Hong Kong subsidiary is considered as a Hong Kong resident enterprise under the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement and is determined by the competent PRC tax authority to have satisfied relevant conditions and requirements, then the dividends paid to our Hong Kong subsidiary by its PRC subsidiaries may be subject to the reduced income tax rate of 5% under the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement. However, based on the Notice on Certain Issues with Respect to the Enforcement of Dividend Provisions in Tax Treaties, if the relevant PRC tax authorities determine, in their discretion, that a company benefits from such reduced income tax rate due to a structure or arrangement that is primarily tax-driven, such PRC tax authorities may adjust the preferential tax treatment. In addition, based on the Announcement on Certain Issues Concerning the Recognition of Beneficial Owners in Tax Treaties issued on February 3, 2018 by SAT, comprehensive analysis shall be conducted based on the factors listed and the actual circumstances of the specific cases to recognize the “beneficial owner.” If we fail to be recognized as beneficial owner, we will not be entitled to the abovementioned reduced income tax rate of 5% under the Double Tax Avoidance Arrangement. If we are required under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law to pay income tax for any dividends we receive from our subsidiaries in China, or if our Hong Kong subsidiary is determined by PRC government authority as receiving benefits from reduced income tax rate due to a structure or arrangement that is primarily tax-driven, it would materially and adversely affect the amount of dividends, if any, we may pay to our shareholders.

If we are classified as a “resident enterprise” of China under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law, we and our non-PRC shareholders could be subject to unfavorable tax consequences, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Under the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules, an enterprise established outside the PRC with “de facto management body” within the PRC is considered a “resident enterprise” and will be subject to the enterprise income tax on its global income at the rate of 25%. The implementation rules define the term “de facto management body” as the body that exercises full and substantial control and overall management over the business, productions, personnel, accounts and properties of an enterprise. In 2009, SAT issued a circular, known as SAT Circular 82, which provides certain specific criteria for determining whether the “de facto management body” of a PRC-controlled enterprise that is incorporated offshore is located in China. Although this circular only applies to offshore enterprises controlled by PRC enterprises or PRC enterprise groups, not those controlled by PRC individuals or foreigners, the criteria set forth in the circular may reflect the SAT’s general position on how the “de facto management body” text should be applied in determining the tax resident status of all offshore enterprises. According to SAT Circular 82, an offshore incorporated enterprise controlled by a PRC enterprise or a PRC enterprise group will be regarded as a PRC tax resident by virtue of having its “de facto management body” in China and will be subject to PRC enterprise income tax on its global income only if all of the following conditions are met: (i) the primary location of the day-to-day operational management is in the PRC; (ii) decisions relating to the enterprise’s financial and human resource matters are made or are subject to approval by organizations or personnel in the PRC; (iii) the enterprise’s primary assets, accounting books and records, company seals, and board and shareholder resolutions, are located or maintained in the PRC; and (iv) at least 50% of board members with voting rights or senior executives habitually reside in the PRC.

We believe that our Cayman Islands holding company, Fangdd Cayman, is not a PRC resident enterprise for PRC tax purposes. However, the tax resident status of an enterprise is subject to determination by the PRC tax authorities and uncertainties remain with respect to the interpretation of the term “de facto management body.” If the PRC tax authorities determine that our Cayman Islands holding company is a PRC resident enterprise for enterprise income tax purposes, we may be required to withhold a 10% tax from dividends we pay to our shareholders that are non-resident enterprises, including the holders of the ADSs. In addition, non-resident enterprise shareholders, including our ADS holders, may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 10% on gains realized on the sale or other disposition of ADSs or ordinary shares, if such income is treated as sourced from within the PRC. Furthermore, if we are deemed a PRC resident enterprise, dividends paid to our non-PRC individual shareholders, including our ADS holders, and any gain realized on the transfer of ADSs or ordinary shares by such shareholders may be subject to PRC tax at a rate of 20% which in the case of dividends may be withheld at source. Any PRC tax liability may be reduced by an applicable tax treaty. However, it is unclear whether non-PRC shareholders of our company would be able to claim the benefits of any tax treaties between their country of tax residence and the PRC in the event that we are treated as a PRC resident enterprise. Any such tax may reduce the returns on your investment in the ADSs or ordinary shares.

In addition to the uncertainty as to the application of the “resident enterprise” classification, we cannot assure you that the PRC government will not amend or revise the taxation laws, rules and regulations to impose stricter tax requirements or higher tax rates. Any of such changes could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Governmental control of currency conversion may affect the value of your investment.

Currently, the Renminbi cannot be freely converted into any foreign currency. The PRC government imposes controls on the convertibility of RMB into foreign currencies and, in certain cases, the remittance of currency out of China. We receive substantially all of our revenues in RMB. Under our current structure, our income will be primarily derived from dividend payments from our PRC subsidiaries. Shortages in the availability of foreign currency may restrict the ability of our PRC subsidiaries and our affiliated entity to remit sufficient foreign currency to pay dividends or other payments to us, or otherwise satisfy their foreign currency dominated obligations. Under existing PRC foreign exchange regulations, payments of current account items, including profit distributions, interest payments and expenditures from trade-related transactions, can be made in foreign currencies without prior approval from the PRC State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or SAFE, by complying with certain procedural requirements. However, for most capital account items, approval from or registration with appropriate government authorities is required where RMB is to be converted into foreign currency and remitted out of China to pay capital expenses such as the repayment of bank loans denominated in foreign currencies. The PRC government may also at its discretion restrict access in the future to foreign currencies for current account transactions. If the foreign exchange control system prevents us from obtaining sufficient foreign currency to satisfy our currency demands, we may not be able to pay dividends in foreign currencies to our shareholders, including holders of the ADSs.

Fluctuation in exchange rates could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and the value of your investment.

The value of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar and other currencies may fluctuate and is affected by, among other things, changes in political and economic conditions in China and by China’s foreign exchange policies. Since June 2010, the Renminbi has fluctuated against the U.S. dollar, at times significantly and unpredictably. On November 30, 2015, the Executive Board of the International Monetary Fund, or IMF, completed the regular five-year review of the basket of currencies that make up the Special Drawing Right, or the SDR, and decided that with effect from October 1, 2016, Renminbi is determined to be a freely usable currency and will be included in the SDR basket as a fifth currency, along with the U.S. dollar, the Euro, the Japanese yen and the British pound. In the fourth quarter of 2016, the RMB has depreciated significantly in the backdrop of a surging U.S. dollar and persistent capital outflows of China. With the development of the foreign exchange market and progress towards interest rate liberalization and Renminbi internationalization, the PRC government may in the future announce further changes to the exchange rate system, and we cannot assure you that the Renminbi will not appreciate or depreciate significantly in value against the U.S. dollar in the future. It is difficult to predict how market forces or PRC or U.S. government policy may impact the exchange rate between the Renminbi and the U.S. dollar in the future.

Significant revaluation of the Renminbi may have a material and adverse effect on your investment. For example, to the extent that we need to convert U.S. dollars we receive from our initial public offering into Renminbi for our operations, appreciation of the Renminbi against the U.S. dollar would have an adverse effect on the Renminbi amount we would receive from the conversion. Conversely, if we decide to convert our Renminbi into U.S. dollars for the purpose of making payments for dividends on our ordinary shares or ADSs or for other business purposes, appreciation of the U.S. dollar against the Renminbi would have a negative effect on the U.S. dollar amount available to us. Very limited hedging options are available in China to reduce our exposure to exchange rate fluctuations. As of the date of this annual report, we have not entered into any hedging transactions in an effort to reduce our exposure to foreign currency exchange risk. While we may decide to enter into hedging transactions in the future, the availability and effectiveness of these hedges may be limited and we may not be able to adequately hedge our exposure or at all. In addition, our currency exchange losses may be magnified by PRC exchange control regulations that restrict our ability to convert Renminbi into foreign currency or to convert foreign currency into Renminbi.

PRC regulations related to offshore investment activities by PRC residents and enterprises may increase our administrative burden and restrict our overseas and cross-border investment activity. If our PRC resident and enterprise shareholders fail to make any required applications and filings under such regulations, we may be unable to distribute profits to such shareholders and may become subject to liability under PRC law.

In July 2014, SAFE promulgated the Circular on Relevant Issues Concerning Foreign Exchange Control on Domestic Residents’ Offshore Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, which replaces the previous SAFE Circular 75. SAFE Circular 37 requires PRC residents, including PRC individuals and PRC corporate entities, to register with SAFE or its local branches in connection with their direct or indirect offshore investment activities. SAFE Circular 37 is applicable to our shareholders who are PRC residents and may be applicable to any offshore acquisitions that we may make in the future.

Under SAFE Circular 37, PRC residents who make, or have prior to the implementation of SAFE Circular 37 made, direct or indirect investments in offshore special purpose vehicles are required to register such investments with SAFE or its local branches. In addition, any PRC resident who is a direct or indirect shareholder of an SPV, is required to update its registration with the local branch of SAFE with respect to that SPV, to reflect any material change. Moreover, any subsidiary of such SPV in China is required to urge the PRC resident shareholders to update their registration with the local branch of SAFE to reflect any material change. If any PRC resident shareholder of such SPV fails to make the required registration or to update the registration, the subsidiary of such SPV in China may be prohibited from distributing its profits or the proceeds from any capital reduction, share transfer or liquidation to the SPV, and the SPV may also be prohibited from making additional capital contributions into its subsidiaries in China. In February 2015, SAFE promulgated a Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving Foreign Exchange Administration Policy on Direct Investment, or SAFE Notice 13. Under SAFE Notice 13, applications for foreign exchange registration of inbound foreign direct investments and outbound direct investments, including those required under SAFE Circular 37, must be filed with qualified banks instead of SAFE. Qualified banks should examine the applications and accept registrations under the supervision of SAFE.

We may not be aware of the identities of all of our beneficial owners who are PRC residents. We do not have control over our beneficial owners and there can be no assurance that all of our PRC resident beneficial owners will comply with SAFE Circular 37 and subsequent implementation rules, and there is no assurance that any required registration under SAFE Circular 37 and any amendment will be completed in a timely manner, or at all. The failure of our beneficial owners who are PRC residents to register or amend their foreign exchange registrations in a timely manner pursuant to SAFE Circular 37 and subsequent implementation rules, or the failure of future beneficial owners of our Company who are PRC residents to comply with the registration procedures set forth in SAFE Circular 37 and subsequent implementation rules, may subject such beneficial owners or our PRC subsidiaries to fines and legal sanctions. Failure to register or comply with relevant requirements may also limit our ability to contribute additional capital to our PRC subsidiaries and limit our PRC subsidiaries’ ability to distribute dividends to us. These risks may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Furthermore, as these foreign exchange and outbound investment related regulations are relatively new and their interpretation and implementation has been constantly evolving, it is unclear how these regulations, and any future regulation concerning offshore or cross-border investments and transactions, will be interpreted, amended and implemented by the relevant government authorities. For example, we may be subject to a more stringent review and approval process with respect to our foreign exchange activities, such as remittance of dividends and foreign-currency-denominated borrowings, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations. We cannot assure you that we have complied or will be able to comply with all applicable foreign exchange and outbound investment related regulations. In addition, if we decide to acquire a PRC domestic company, we cannot assure you that we or the owners of such company, as the case may be, will be able to obtain the necessary approvals or complete the necessary filings and registrations required by the foreign exchange regulations. This may restrict our ability to implement our acquisition strategy and could adversely affect our business and prospects.

PRC regulation of loans and direct investment by offshore holding companies to PRC entities may delay or prevent us from making loans or additional capital contributions to our PRC operating subsidiaries.

As an offshore holding company of our PRC operating subsidiaries, we may make loans to our PRC subsidiaries, the VIE and the VIE’s subsidiaries, or may make additional capital contributions to our PRC subsidiaries, subject to satisfaction of applicable governmental registration and approval requirements.

Any loans we extend to our PRC subsidiaries, which are treated as foreign-invested enterprises under PRC law, cannot exceed the statutory limit and must be registered with the local counterpart of the SAFE.

We may also decide to finance our PRC subsidiaries by means of capital contributions. According to the relevant PRC regulations on foreign-invested enterprises in China, these capital contributions are subject to registration with or approval by the MOFCOM or its local counterparts. In addition, the PRC government also restricts the convertibility of foreign currencies into Renminbi and use of the proceeds. On March 30, 2015, SAFE promulgated Circular 19, which took effect and replaced certain previous SAFE regulations from June 1, 2015. SAFE further promulgated Circular 16, effective on June 9, 2016, which, among other things, amend certain provisions of Circular 19. According to SAFE Circular 19 and SAFE Circular 16, the flow and use of the Renminbi capital converted from foreign currency denominated registered capital of a foreign-invested company is regulated such that Renminbi capital may not be used for business beyond its business scope or to provide loans to persons other than affiliates unless otherwise permitted under its business scope. On October 23, 2019, SAFE issued the Circular to Further Promote Cross-border Trade and Investment to further ease cross-border trade and investment, according to which foreign non-investment enterprises are allowed to carry out domestic equity investment provided that such investment will not violate applicable special administrative measures (negative list) for foreign investment access and the investment projects shall be authentic and legitimate. Violations of the applicable circulars and rules may result in severe penalties, including substantial fines as set forth in the Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations. If the VIE requires financial support from us or our wholly owned subsidiaries in the future and we find it necessary to use foreign currency-denominated capital to provide such financial support, our ability to fund the VIE’s operations will be subject to statutory limits and restrictions, including those described above. These circulars may limit our ability to transfer the net proceeds from our initial public offering to the VIE and our PRC subsidiaries, and we may not be able to convert the net proceeds from our initial public offering into Renminbi to invest in or acquire any other PRC companies in China. Despite the restrictions under these SAFE circulars, our PRC subsidiaries may use their income in Renminbi generated from their operations to finance the VIE through entrustment loans to the VIE or loans to the VIE’s shareholders for the purpose of making capital contributions to the VIE. In addition, our PRC subsidiaries can use Renminbi funds converted from foreign currency registered capital to carry out any activities within their normal course of business and business scope, including to purchase or lease servers and other relevant equipment and fund other operational needs in connection with their provision of services to the relevant VIE under the applicable exclusive technical support agreements.

In light of the various requirements imposed by PRC regulations on loans to, and direct investment in, PRC entities by offshore holding companies, we cannot assure you that we will be able to complete the necessary government registrations or obtain the necessary government approvals on a timely basis, if at all, with respect to future loans to our PRC subsidiaries or the VIE or future capital contributions by us to our PRC subsidiaries. If we fail to complete such registrations or obtain such approvals, our ability to use the proceeds we expect to receive from our initial public offering and to fund our PRC operations may be negatively affected, which could materially and adversely affect our liquidity and our ability to fund and expand our business.

We may rely on dividends and other distributions on equity paid by our PRC subsidiaries to fund any cash and financing requirements we may have, and any limitation on the ability of our PRC subsidiaries to make payments to us could have a material and adverse effect on our ability to make investments or acquisitions, pay dividends or otherwise fund our business.

We are a holding company, and we may rely on dividends from our subsidiaries in China for our cash requirements, including any debt we may incur. Current PRC regulations permit our subsidiaries to pay dividends to us only out of their accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with Chinese accounting standards and regulations. In addition, each of our subsidiaries in China is required to set aside a certain amount of its after-tax profits each year, if any, to fund certain statutory reserves. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. Furthermore, if our subsidiaries in China incur debt on their own behalf in the future, the instruments governing the debt may restrict their ability to pay dividends or make other payments to us. In addition, the PRC tax authorities may require us to adjust our taxable income under the contractual arrangements we currently have in place in a manner that would materially and adversely affect our subsidiaries’ ability to pay dividends and other distributions to us. Any limitation on the ability of our subsidiaries to distribute dividends or other payments to us could materially and adversely limit our ability to grow, make investments or acquisitions that could be beneficial to our businesses, pay dividends, or otherwise fund and conduct our business.

Failure to comply with PRC regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee stock ownership plans or share option plans may subject the PRC plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions.

Under the applicable regulations and SAFE rules, PRC citizens who participate in an employee stock ownership plan or a stock option plan in an overseas publicly listed company are required to register with SAFE and complete certain other procedures. In February 2012, SAFE promulgated the Notices on Issues concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plans of Overseas Publicly-Listed Companies, or the Stock Option Rules, which replaced the Application Procedures of Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Employee Stock Ownership Plan or Stock Option Plans of Overseas Publicly-Listed Companies issued by SAFE in March 2007. Pursuant to the Stock Option Rules, if a PRC resident participates in any stock incentive plan of an overseas publicly-listed company, a qualified PRC domestic agent must, among other things, file on behalf of such participant an application with SAFE to conduct the SAFE registration with respect to such stock incentive plan and obtain approval for an annual allowance with respect to the purchase of foreign exchange in connection with the exercise or sale of stock options or stock such participant holds. Such participating PRC residents’ foreign exchange income received from the sale of stock and dividends distributed by the overseas publicly-listed company must be fully remitted into a PRC collective foreign currency account opened and managed by the PRC agent before distribution to such participants. We and our PRC resident employees who have been granted stock options or other share-based incentives of our Company are subject to the Stock Option Rules. If we or our PRC resident participants fail to comply with these regulations, we and/or our PRC resident participants may be subject to fines and legal sanctions. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulation—Regulations Related to Stock Incentive Plans.”

The M&A Rules and certain other PRC regulations establish complex procedures for some acquisitions of PRC companies by foreign investors, which could make it more difficult for us to pursue growth through acquisitions in China.

The M&A Rules and relevant regulations and rules concerning mergers and acquisitions established additional procedures and requirements that could make merger and acquisition activities by foreign investors more time consuming and complex. The M&A Rules require that the MOFCOM be notified in advance of any change-of-control transaction in which a foreign investor takes control of a PRC domestic enterprise, if (i) any important industry is concerned, (ii) such transaction involves factors that have or may have impact on the national economic security; or (iii) such transaction will lead to a change in control of a domestic enterprise which holds a famous trademark or PRC time-honored brand. The approval from MOFCOM shall be obtained in circumstances where overseas companies established or controlled by PRC enterprises or residents acquire affiliated domestic companies.

The Anti-Monopoly Law, or the AML, promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, which became effective in August 2008, requires that when a concentration of undertakings occurs and reaches statutory thresholds, the undertakings concerned shall file a prior notification with MOFCOM. Without the clearance from MOFCOM, no concentration of undertakings shall be implemented and effected. Mergers, acquisitions or contractual arrangements that allow one market player to take control of or to exert decisive impact on another market player must also be notified in advance to the MOFCOM when the threshold under the Provisions on Thresholds for Prior Notification of Concentrations of Undertakings, or the Prior Notification Rules, issued by the State Council in August 2008 is triggered. If such prior notification is not obtained, MOFCOM may order the concentration to cease its operations, dispose of shares or assets, transfer the business of the concentration within a time limit, take any other necessary measures to restore the situation as it was before the concentration, and may impose administrative fines.

In addition, the Implementing Rules Concerning Security Review on the Mergers and Acquisitions by Foreign Investors of Domestic Enterprises, issued by the MOFCOM in August 2011, specify that mergers and acquisitions by foreign investors involved in “an industry related to national security” are subject to strict review by the MOFCOM, and prohibit any activities attempting to bypass such security review, including by structuring the transaction through a proxy or contractual control arrangement. In the future, we may grow our business by acquiring complementary businesses. Complying with the requirements of the above-mentioned regulations and other relevant rules to complete such transactions could be time consuming, and any required approval processes, including obtaining approval from the MOFCOM or its local counterparts may delay or inhibit our ability to complete such transactions.

We cannot preclude the possibility that the MOFCOM or other government agencies may publish explanations contrary to our understanding or broaden the scope of such security reviews in the future, in which case our future acquisitions in the PRC, including those by way of entering into contractual control arrangements with target entities, may be closely scrutinized or prohibited. Our ability to expand our business or maintain or expand our market share through future acquisitions would as such be materially and adversely affected.

We and our shareholders face uncertainty with respect to indirect transfers of equity interests in PRC resident enterprises, assets attributed to a PRC establishment of a non-PRC company or immovable properties located in China owned by non-PRC companies.

In February 2015, SAT issued a Public Notice Regarding Certain Corporate Income Tax Matters on Indirect Transfer of Properties by Non-Tax Resident Enterprises, or SAT Public Notice 7. SAT Public Notice 7 extends its tax jurisdiction to transactions involving transfer of other taxable assets through offshore transfer of a foreign intermediate holding company. In addition, SAT Public Notice 7 provides clear criteria for assessment of reasonable commercial purposes and has introduced safe harbors for internal group restructurings and the purchase and sale of equity through a public securities market. SAT Public Notice 7 also brings challenges to both foreign transferor and transferee (or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer) of taxable assets. In October 2017, SAT issued the Announcement of the State Administration of Taxation on Issues Concerning the Withholding of Non-resident Enterprise Income Tax at Source, or SAT Bulletin 37, which came into effect on December 1, 2017. The Bulletin 37 further clarifies the practice and procedure of the withholding of non-resident enterprise income tax. Where a non-resident enterprise transfers taxable assets indirectly by disposing of the equity interest of an overseas holding company, which is an indirect transfer, the non-resident enterprise as either transferor or transferee, or the PRC entity that directly owns the taxable assets, may report such Indirect Transfer to the relevant tax authority. Using a “substance over form” principle, the PRC tax authority may disregard the existence of the overseas holding company if it lacks a reasonable commercial purpose and was established for the purpose of reducing, avoiding or deferring PRC tax. As a result, gains derived from such indirect transfer other than transfer of Shares of ADSs acquired and sold on public markets may be subject to PRC enterprise income tax, and the transferee or other person who is obligated to pay for the transfer is obligated to withhold the applicable taxes, currently at a rate of 10% for the transfer of equity interest in a PRC resident enterprise. Both the transferor and the transferee may be subject to penalties under PRC tax laws if the transferee fails to withhold the taxes and the transferor fails to pay the taxes.

We face uncertainties as to the reporting and other implications of certain past and future transactions that involve PRC taxable assets, such as offshore restructuring, sale of the shares in our offshore subsidiaries and investments. Our company may be subject to filing obligations or taxed if our company is transferor in such transactions, and may be subject to withholding obligations if our company is transferee in such transactions, under SAT Public Notice 7 or Bulletin 37, or both.

You may experience difficulties in effecting service of legal process, enforcing foreign judgments or bringing actions in China against us or our management named in this annual report based on foreign laws.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. We conduct substantially all of our operations in China and a substantial portion of our assets are located in China. In addition, many of our senior executive officers and directors reside within China for a significant portion of the time and some of them are PRC nationals. As a result, it may be difficult for you to effect service of process upon us or those persons inside China. It may also be difficult for you to enforce in U.S. courts judgments obtained in U.S. courts based on the civil liability provisions of the U.S. federal securities laws against us and our officers and directors. In addition, the courts of the Cayman Islands or the PRC are unlikely to (i) recognize or enforce judgments of U.S. courts against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the civil liability provisions of the securities laws of the United States or any state in the United States, or (ii) entertain original actions brought in the Cayman Islands or the PRC to impose liabilities against us or our directors or officers that are predicated upon the federal securities laws of the United States or the securities laws of any state in the United States so far as the liabilities imposed by those provisions are penal in nature.

The recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments are provided for under the PRC Civil Procedures Law. PRC courts may recognize and enforce foreign judgments in accordance with the requirements of the PRC Civil Procedures Law and other applicable laws, regulations and interpretations based either on treaties between China and the country where the judgment is made or on principles of reciprocity between jurisdictions. China does not have any treaties or other forms of written arrangement with the United States that provide for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments. In addition, according to the PRC Civil Procedures Law, the PRC courts will not enforce a foreign judgment against us or our directors and officers if they decide that the judgment violates the basic principles of PRC laws or national sovereignty, security or the public interest. As a result, it is uncertain whether and on what basis a PRC court would enforce a judgment rendered by a court in the United States.

The PCAOB had historically been unable to inspect our former auditor in relation to their audit work.

Our former auditor, the independent registered public accounting firm that issued the audit reports on our consolidated financial statements as of and for the years ended December 31, 2020 and 2021, as an auditor of companies that are traded publicly in the United States and a firm registered with the PCAOB is required by the laws of the United States to undergo regular inspections by the PCAOB to assess its compliance with the laws of the United States and professional standards. Because our former auditor is located in the PRC, a jurisdiction where the PCAOB was historically unable to conduct inspections and investigations completely before 2022, our former auditor was not inspected by the PCAOB in relation to their audit work for our company. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed Mainland China and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it is unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. Each year, the PCAOB will determine whether it can inspect and investigate completely audit firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong, among other jurisdictions.

Inspections of other firms that the PCAOB has conducted outside China have identified deficiencies in those firms’ audit procedures and quality control procedures, which may be addressed as part of the inspection process to improve future audit quality. The lack of PCAOB inspections in China in the past made it difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of our former auditor’s audit procedures or quality control procedures as compared to auditors outside of China that were subject to PCAOB inspections. Investors may lose confidence in our reported financial information and procedures and the quality of our financial statements. As part of our continued efforts to ensure accuracy of our financial reporting, our audit committee periodically communicates with our independent auditor to oversee and evaluate the audit procedures and status. However, we cannot assure you that the measures our audit committee has taken or will take in the future will be effective. We have dismissed our former auditor that is located in Mainland China and engaged our current auditor, a Singapore-based accounting firm that is registered with the PCAOB and meets the PCAOB inspection requirements, as our company’s independent registered public accounting firm for the fiscal year ending December 31, 2022.

Our ADSs may be prohibited from trading in the United States under the HFCA Act in the future if the PCAOB is unable to inspect or investigate completely auditors located in China. The delisting of our ADSs, or the threat of their being delisted, may materially and adversely affect the value of your investment.

Pursuant to the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act, or the HFCA Act, if the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or the SEC, determines that a company retains a foreign accounting firm that cannot be subject to inspections by the PCAOB for two consecutive years, the SEC will prohibit its securities from being traded on a national securities exchange or in the over-the-counter trading market in the United States. On December 16, 2021, the PCAOB issued a report relaying to the SEC its determinations that the board was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong. In March 2022, the SEC issued its first “Conclusive list of issuers identified under the HFCA Act” indicating that those companies were formally subject to the delisting provisions. In May 2022, we were conclusively identified by the SEC under the HFCA Act due to the fact that our previous auditor was located in Mainland China and could not be inspected by the PCAOB. See https://www.sec.gov/hfcaa.

On August 26, 2022, the PCAOB signed with the CSRC and the Ministry of Finance of the PRC a Statement of Protocol, which gives the PCAOB sole discretion to select the firms, audit engagements and potential violations it inspects and investigates and put in place procedures for PCAOB inspectors and investigators to view complete audit work papers with all information included and for the PCAOB to retain information as needed. On December 15, 2022, the PCAOB issued a report that vacated its December 16, 2021 determination and removed Mainland China and Hong Kong from the list of jurisdictions where it was unable to inspect or investigate completely registered public accounting firms. Each year, the PCAOB will determine whether it can inspect and investigate completely audit firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong, among other jurisdictions.

We have engaged our current auditor, a Singapore-based accounting firm that is registered with the PCAOB, as our independent registered public accounting firm for the fiscal year ending December 31, 2022, and our current auditor can be inspected under the PCAOB requirements. However, if the PCAOB determines in the future that it no longer has full access to inspect and investigate completely accounting firms in Mainland China and Hong Kong, it may create uncertainty about the ability of our current auditor to fully cooperate with the PCAOB’s request for audit work papers. Such lack of inspection could cause trading in our securities to be prohibited under the HFCA Act and ultimately result in a determination by a securities exchange to delist our securities. If our shares and ADSs are prohibited from trading in the United States, there is no certainty that we will be able to list on a non-U.S. exchange or that a market for our shares will develop outside of the United States. Such a prohibition would substantially impair your ability to sell or purchase our ADSs when you wish to do so, and the risk and uncertainty associated with delisting would cause our ADSs to significantly decline in value or become worthless. Also, such a prohibition would significantly affect our ability to raise capital on terms acceptable to us, or at all, which would have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, and prospects.

If additional remedial measures are imposed on the “big four” PRC-based accounting firms, including our former independent registered public accounting firm, in administrative proceedings brought by the SEC alleging such firms’ failure to meet specific criteria set by the SEC with respect to requests for the production of documents, we could fail to timely file future financial statements in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act.

In late 2012, the SEC commenced administrative proceedings under Rule 102(e) of its Rules of Practice and also under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 against the “big four” PRC-based accounting firms (including our former auditor). The Rule 102(e) proceedings initiated by the SEC relate to these firms’ inability to produce documents, including audit work papers, in response to the request of the SEC pursuant to Section 106 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as the auditors located in China are not in a position lawfully to produce documents directly to the SEC because of restrictions under PRC laws and specific directives issued by the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC. The issues raised by the proceedings are not specific to our auditors or to us, but affect equally all audit firms based in China and all China-based businesses with securities listed in the United States.

In January 2014, the administrative judge reached an initial decision that each of these firms should be barred from practicing before the SEC for six months. Thereafter, the accounting firms filed a petition for review of the initial decision, prompting the SEC commissioners to review the initial decision, determine whether there had been any violation and, if so, determine the appropriate remedy to be placed on these audit firms.

In February 2015, “big four” PRC-based accounting firms (including our former auditor) each agreed to censure and pay a fine to the SEC to settle the dispute and avoid suspension of their ability to practice before the SEC and audit U.S. listed companies. The settlement requires the firms to follow detailed procedures and to seek to provide the SEC with access to the Chinese firms’ audit documents via the CSRC. Under the terms of the settlement, the underlying proceeding against the four China-based accounting firms was deemed dismissed with prejudice four years after entry of the settlement. The four-year mark occurred on February 6, 2019.

While we cannot predict if the SEC will further challenge the four China-based accounting firms’ compliance with U.S. law in connection with U.S. regulatory requests for audit work papers or if the results of such a challenge would result in the SEC imposing penalties such as suspensions, if the accounting firms are subject to additional remedial measures, our ability to file our financial statements in compliance with SEC requirements could be impacted. A determination that we have not timely filed financial statements in compliance with SEC requirements could ultimately lead to the delisting of our ADSs or the termination of the registration of our ADSs under the Exchange Act, or both, which would substantially reduce or effectively terminate the trading of our ADSs in the United States.

In the event that the SEC restarts the administrative proceedings, depending upon the final outcome, listed companies in the United States with major PRC operations may find it difficult or impossible to retain auditors in respect of their operations in China, which could result in financial statements being determined to not be in compliance with the requirements of the Exchange Act, and could result in delisting. Moreover, any negative news about the proceedings against these audit firms may cause investor uncertainty regarding China-based, United States-listed companies and the market price of our shares may be adversely affected.

It may be difficult for overseas regulators to conduct investigations or collect evidence within China.

Shareholder claims or regulatory investigation that are common in the United States generally are difficult to pursue as a matter of law or practicality in China. For example, in China, there are significant legal and other obstacles to providing information needed for regulatory investigations or litigation initiated outside China. Although the authorities in China may establish a regulatory cooperation mechanism with the securities regulatory authorities of another country or region to implement cross-border supervision and administration, such cooperation with the securities regulatory authorities in the Unities States may not be efficient in the absence of mutual and practical cooperation mechanisms. Furthermore, according to Article 177 of the PRC Securities Law, or Article 177, which became effective in March 2020, no overseas securities regulator is allowed to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within the territory of the PRC. While detailed interpretations of or implementation rules under Article 177 are yet to be promulgated, the inability for an overseas securities regulator to directly conduct investigation or evidence collection activities within China may further increase difficulties you may face in protecting your interests.

Risks Related to The ADSs

The market price movement of the ADSs may be volatile.

The trading prices of the ADSs are likely to be volatile and could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, like the performance and fluctuation in the market prices or the underperformance or deteriorating financial results of other listed companies based in China. The securities of some of these companies have experienced significant volatility since their initial public offerings, including, in some cases, substantial price declines in the trading prices of their securities. The trading performances of other Chinese companies’ securities after their offerings, including Internet companies, online retail and mobile commerce platforms and consumer finance service providers, may affect the attitudes of investors toward Chinese companies listed in the United States, which consequently may impact the trading performance of the ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance. In addition, any negative news or perceptions about inadequate corporate governance practices or fraudulent accounting, corporate structure or matters of other Chinese companies may also negatively affect the attitudes of investors towards Chinese companies in general, including us, regardless of whether we have conducted any inappropriate activities. Furthermore, securities markets may from time to time experience significant price and volume fluctuations that are not related to our operating performance, such as the large decline in share prices in the United States, China and other jurisdictions in late 2008, early 2009, the second half of 2011, 2015, 2021 and 2022, which may have a material and adverse effect on the trading price of the ADSs.

In addition to the above factors, the price and trading volume of the ADSs may be highly volatile due to multiple factors, including the following:

We may be unable to comply with the applicable continued listing requirements of Nasdaq.

ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares are currently listed on Nasdaq. In order to maintain this listing, we must satisfy minimum financial and other continued listing requirements and standards. On January 4, 2022, we received a notice from the Nasdaq Stock Market LLC, notifying that we were not in compliance with the minimum bid price requirement set forth under Nasdaq Listing Rule 5450(a)(1) because the bid price of our ADSs closed below US$1.00 per ADS for the 30 consecutive business days from November 19, 2021 to January 3, 2022. We were granted a grace period of 180 calendar days, expiring on July 5, 2022, in which to regain compliance. In order to regain compliance with the minimum bid price requirement, we changed the ratio of our ADSs representing Class A ordinary shares from one (1) ADS representing twenty five (25) Class A ordinary shares to one (1) ADS representing three hundred seventy-five (375) Class A ordinary shares. The change became effective on June 7, 2022. On June 22, 2022, Nasdaq confirmed in a compliance notice that for the ten consecutive business days, from June 7 through June 21, 2022, the closing bid price of our ADSs had been at $1.00 per share or greater. Accordingly, we regained compliance with Nasdaq Listing Rule 5450(a)(1), and the matter was closed.

On October 20, 2022, we received another notice from Nasdaq, stating that we were not in compliance with the Nasdaq listing requirement to maintain a minimum market value of publicly held shares, or MVPHS, of at least US$5 million for a period of 30 consecutive business days, as required under Nasdaq Listing Rule 5450(b)(1)(C). We were provided 180 calendar days, or until April 18, 2023, to regain compliance with the MVPHS requirement. On March 24, 2023, based on our company’s MVPHS for a period of 11 consecutive business days, from March 9 to March 23, 2023, Nasdaq confirmed that our company’s MVPHS had been greater than US$5 million. Accordingly, we regained compliance with the MVPHS requirement and this matter was closed. In the future, if we were unable to comply with any applicable listing requirements of Nasdaq, our ADSs would be subject to delisting. In the event that our ADSs are delisted from Nasdaq and are not eligible for quotation or listing on another market or exchange, trading of our ADSs could be conducted only in the over-the-counter market established for unlisted securities such as OTC Markets. In such event, it could become more difficult to dispose of, or obtain accurate price quotations for our ADSs, which could cause the price of our ADSs to decline further.

The sale or availability for sale of substantial amounts of the ADSs or ordinary shares could adversely affect their market price.

Sales of substantial amounts of the ADSs or ordinary shares in the public market, or the perception that these sales could occur, could adversely affect the market price of the ADSs. As of March 31, 2023, we had 21,351,086,319 ordinary shares outstanding, comprising of 20,854,967,959 Class A ordinary shares, 490,418,360 Class B ordinary shares outstanding and 5,700,000 Class C ordinary shares outstanding, including 1,792,471,025 Class A ordinary shares represented by approximately 4,779,923 ADSs, which are freely transferable without restriction or additional registration under the Securities Act. The remaining Class A ordinary shares outstanding and Class A ordinary shares converted from the Class B ordinary shares or the Class C ordinary shares will be available for sale, subject to volume and other restrictions as applicable under Rules 144 and 701 under the Securities Act. Certain holders of our ordinary shares may cause us to register under the Securities Act the sale of their shares. Sales of these registered shares in the form of ADSs in the public market could adversely affect the market price of the ADSs.

Our triple-class voting structure will limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transactions that holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

Our ordinary share capital consists of Class A ordinary shares, Class B ordinary shares and Class C ordinary shares. Holders of Class A ordinary shares, Class B ordinary shares and Class C ordinary shares shall vote together as one class on all resolutions submitted to a vote by the shareholders. In respect of matters requiring the votes of shareholders, holders of Class A ordinary shares are entitled to one vote per share, while (i) holders of Class B ordinary shares are entitled to ten votes per share and (ii) holders of Class C ordinary shares are entitled to 10,000 votes per share, except that we shall only amend, alter, modify or change the rights, restrictions, preferences or privileges of Class C ordinary shares with the written consent of the holders holding a majority of the issued and outstanding Class C ordinary shares or with the sanction of a special resolution passed at a separate meeting of the holders of the issued and outstanding Class C ordinary shares.

Each Class B ordinary share or Class C ordinary share is convertible into one Class A ordinary share at any time at the option of the holder thereof, or subject to automatic and immediate conversion into one Class A ordinary share once certain conditions are met, while neither Class A ordinary shares nor Class C ordinary shares are convertible into Class B ordinary shares under any circumstances, neither Class A ordinary shares nor Class B ordinary shares are convertible into Class C ordinary shares under any circumstances.

Due to the disparate voting powers attached to these three classes, holders of our Class B ordinary shares and Class C ordinary shares have significant voting power over matters requiring shareholders’ approval. This concentrated control will limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

If securities or industry analysts cease to publish research or reports about our business, or if they adversely change their recommendations regarding the ADSs, the market price for the ADSs and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for the ADSs will depend in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. If research analysts do not establish and maintain adequate research coverage or if one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades the ADSs or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, the market price for the ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease coverage of our company or fail to publish reports on us regularly, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which, in turn, could cause the market price or trading volume for the ADSs to decline.

Because we do not expect to pay dividends in the foreseeable future, you must rely on price appreciation of the ADSs for return on your investment.

We currently intend to retain most, if not all, of our available funds and any future earnings to fund the development and growth of our business. As a result, we do not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future. Therefore, you should not rely on an investment in the ADSs as a source for any future dividend income.

Our board of directors has complete discretion as to whether to distribute dividends, subject to certain restrictions under Cayman Islands law, namely that our company may only pay dividends out of profits or share premium, and provided always that in no circumstances may a dividend be paid if this would result in our company being unable to pay its debts as they fall due in the ordinary course of business. In addition, our shareholders may by ordinary resolution declare a dividend, but no dividend may exceed the amount recommended by our board of directors. Even if our board of directors decides to declare and pay dividends, the timing, amount and form of future dividends, if any, will depend on, among other things, our future results of operations and cash flow, our capital requirements and surplus, the amount of distributions, if any, received by us from our subsidiaries, our financial condition, contractual restrictions and other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Accordingly, the return on your investment in the ADSs will likely depend entirely upon any future price appreciation of the ADSs. There is no guarantee that the ADSs will appreciate in value or even maintain the price at which you purchased the ADSs. You may not realize a return on your investment in the ADSs and you may even lose your entire investment in the ADSs.

We may need additional capital, and the sale of additional ADSs or other equity securities could result in additional dilution to our shareholders, while the incurrence of debt may impose restrictions on our operations.

We believe that our current cash, cash equivalents, restricted cash and anticipated cash flow from operations will be sufficient to meet our anticipated cash needs for the foreseeable future. We may, however, require additional cash resources due to changed business conditions or other future developments, including any investments or acquisitions we may decide to pursue. If these resources are insufficient to satisfy our cash requirements, we may seek to sell equity or debt securities or obtain a credit facility. The sale of equity securities would result in dilution to our shareholders. The incurrence of indebtedness would result in increased debt service obligations and could require us to agree to operating and financing covenants that would restrict our operations. We cannot assure you that financing will be available in amounts or on terms acceptable to us, if at all.

Our memorandum and articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could adversely affect the rights of holders of our ordinary shares and ADSs.

Our current memorandum and articles of association contain provisions to limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions, including a provision that grants authority to our board of directors to establish and issue from time to time one or more series of preferred shares without action by our shareholders and to determine, with respect to any series of preferred shares, the terms and rights of that series, any or all which may be greater than the rights associated with our Class A ordinary shares, in the form of ADSs. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders of an opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over prevailing market prices by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transaction. For example, our board of directors has the authority, without further action by our shareholders, to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to fix their designations, powers, preferences, privileges, and relative participating, optional or special rights and the qualifications, limitations or restrictions, including dividend rights, conversion rights, voting rights, terms of redemption and liquidation preferences, any or all of which may be greater than the rights associated with our Class A ordinary shares, in the form of ADS, or otherwise. Preferred shares could be issued quickly with terms calculated to delay or prevent a change in control of our company or make removal of management more difficult. If our board of directors decides to issue preferred shares, the price of the ADSs may fall and the voting and other rights of the holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.

We qualify as a foreign private issuer and, as a result, we are not subject to U.S. proxy rules and are subject to Exchange Act reporting obligations that permit less detailed and frequent reporting than that of a U.S. domestic public company.

We report under the Exchange Act as a non-U.S. company with foreign private issuer status. Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the Exchange Act that are applicable to U.S. domestic public companies, including (i) the sections of the Exchange Act regulating the solicitation of proxies, consents or authorizations in respect of a security registered under the Exchange Act; (ii) the sections of the Exchange Act requiring insiders to file public reports of their stock ownership and trading activities and liability for insiders who profit from trades made in a short period of time; and (iii) the rules under the Exchange Act requiring the filing with the SEC of quarterly reports on Form 10-Q containing unaudited financial and other specified information, or current reports on Form 8-K upon the occurrence of specified significant events. In addition, foreign private issuers are not required to file their annual report on Form 20-F until 120 days after the end of each fiscal year, while U.S. domestic issuers that are accelerated filers are required to file their annual report on Form 10-K within 75 days after the end of each fiscal year. Foreign private issuers are also exempt from Regulation FD, aimed at preventing issuers from making selective disclosures of material information. As a result of the above, you may not have the same protections afforded to shareholders of companies that are not foreign private issuers.

If we lose our status as a foreign private issuer, we would be required to comply with the Exchange Act reporting and other requirements applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, which are more detailed and extensive than the requirements for foreign private issuers. We may also be required to make changes in our corporate governance practices in accordance with various SEC and Nasdaq rules. The regulatory and compliance costs to us under U.S. securities laws if we are required to comply with the reporting requirements applicable to a U.S. domestic issuer may be significantly higher than the cost we would incur as a foreign private issuer. As a result, we expect that a loss of foreign private issuer status would increase our legal and financial compliance costs and would make some activities highly time-consuming and costly. We also expect that if we were required to comply with the rules and regulations applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, it would make it more difficult and expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain coverage. These rules and regulations could also make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified members of our board of directors.

As a foreign private issuer, we are permitted to, and we have elected to, rely on exemptions from certain Nasdaq corporate governance standards applicable to U.S. issuers, including the requirement that a majority of an issuer’s directors consist of independent directors. This may afford less protection to holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs.

As a Cayman Islands exempted company listed on the Nasdaq Global Market, we are subject to the Nasdaq corporate governance listing standards. For example, Rule 5605 of the Nasdaq Stock Market Rules requires listed companies to have, among other things, a majority of its board members to be independent, and to have independent director oversight of executive compensation and nomination of directors.

However, Nasdaq rules permit a foreign private issuer like us to follow the corporate governance practices of its home country. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, may differ significantly from the Nasdaq corporate governance listing standards. For example, under Cayman Islands law we are not required to (i) have a majority of independent directors serve on our board of directors, (ii) have a compensation committee composed entirely of independent directors, (iii) have a nominating committee composed entirely of independent directors, and (iv) hold annual meeting of shareholders within one year after the end of a fiscal year. With respect to the foregoing corporate governance requirements, we have elected to follow home country practice. See “Item 16G. Corporate Governance.” As a majority of our board of directors are currently not independent directors, fewer board members will be exercising independent judgment and the level of board oversight on the management of our Company may decrease as a result. Since we have chosen to follow certain home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would enjoy under the Nasdaq corporate governance listing standards applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.

The concentration of our share ownership among our directors and executive officers will likely limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transaction that holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

As of March 31, 2023, our directors and executive officers and their affiliated entities together beneficially own approximately 2.6% of our total issued and outstanding ordinary shares, representing 74.9% of our total voting rights. As a result of the concentration of voting power, these directors and executive officers will have considerable influence over matters such as decisions regarding mergers, consolidations and the sale of all or substantially all of our assets, election of directors and other significant corporate actions. This concentration of ownership may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could have the effect of depriving our other shareholders of the opportunity to receive a premium for their shares as part of a sale of our company and may reduce the price of the ADSs. This concentrated control will limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A ordinary shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

There can be no assurance that we were not a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for 2022 or that we will not be a PFIC for 2023 or any other taxable year, which could result in adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences to U.S. investors in the ADSs or ordinary shares.

A non-United States corporation will be a PFIC for U.S. federal income tax purposes for any taxable year if either (i) at least 75% of its gross income for such year is passive income or (ii) at least 50% of the value of its assets (based on a weighted quarterly average) during such year is attributable to assets that produce or are held for the production of passive income. A separate determination must be made after the close of each taxable year as to whether a non-United States corporation is a PFIC for that year. Although the law in this regard is unclear, we intend to treat the VIE (and its subsidiaries) as being owned by us for U.S. federal income tax purposes, not only because we direct the activities of the VIE (and its subsidiaries) that most significantly impact the economic performance of such entities but also because we are entitled to substantially all of their economic benefits, and, as a result, we consolidate their results of operations in our consolidated financial statements. Assuming that we are treated as the owner of the VIE (and its subsidiaries) for U.S. federal income tax purposes, and based upon our current and expected income and assets, including goodwill and other unbooked intangibles, and the market value of the ADSs), we do not believe we were a PFIC for U.S. federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2022.

The determination of our PFIC status is a fact-intensive determination made on an annual basis and the applicable law is subject to varying interpretation. The value of our assets for purposes of the asset test may be determined by reference to the market price of the ADSs, fluctuations in the market price of the ADSs may cause us to become a PFIC for the current or subsequent taxable years. In addition, the composition of our income and assets will also be affected by how, and how quickly, we use our liquid assets and the cash raised in our initial public offering. If we determine not to deploy significant amounts of cash for active purposes or if it were determined that we do not own the stock of the VIE for U.S. federal income tax purposes, our risk of being a PFIC may substantially increase. In light of the foregoing, there can be no assurance that we were not, or will not be, a PFIC for any taxable year, and our U.S. counsel expresses no opinion with respect to our PFIC status for any prior, current or future taxable year.

If we are a PFIC for any taxable year during which a U.S. Holder (as defined in “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—U.S. Federal Income Taxation) holds the ADSs or ordinary shares, certain adverse U.S. federal income tax consequences could apply to such U.S. Holder. See “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—U.S. Federal Income Taxation—Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.”

Since shareholder rights under Cayman Islands law differ from those under U.S. law, you may have difficulty protecting your shareholder rights.

We are an exempted company limited by shares incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act (As Revised) of the Cayman Islands and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against our directors, actions by our minority shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, Cayman Islands companies may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States.

Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records (other than the Memorandum and Articles of Association, the Register of Mortgages and Charges and special resolutions of our shareholders) or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have discretion under our currently effective memorandum and articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.

Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, differ significantly from requirements for companies incorporated in other jurisdictions such as the United States.  Since we have chosen to follow certain home country practice, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would enjoy under the Nasdaq corporate governance listing standards applicable to U.S. domestic issuers.  See “—As a foreign private issuer, we are permitted to, and we have elected to, rely on exemptions from certain Nasdaq corporate governance standards applicable to U.S. issuers, including the requirement that a majority of an issuer’s directors consist of independent directors. This may afford less protection to holders of our Class A ordinary shares and ADSs.”

As a result of all of the above, public shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by our management, members of our board of directors or our controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States.

You may experience difficulties in effecting service of legal process, enforcing foreign judgments or bringing original actions based on United States or other foreign laws against us or our management.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands. Our corporate affairs are governed by our memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act of the Cayman Islands (As Revised) and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against our directors, actions by our minority shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, Cayman Islands companies may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States.

Judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable in our home jurisdiction.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands, we conduct substantially all of our operations in China and substantially all of our assets are located in China. In addition, all our senior executive officers reside within China for a significant portion of the time and most are PRC nationals. As a result, it may be difficult for our shareholders to effect service of process upon us or those persons inside mainland China. In addition, China does not have treaties providing for the reciprocal recognition and enforcement of judgments of courts with the Cayman Islands and many other countries and regions. Therefore, recognition and enforcement in China of judgments of a court in any of these non-PRC jurisdictions in relation to any matter not subject to a binding arbitration provision may be difficult or impossible.

The voting rights of holders of ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement, and you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the Class A ordinary shares which are represented by your ADSs are voted.

Holders of ADSs do not have the same rights as our registered shareholders. As a holder of the ADSs, you will not have any direct right to attend general meetings of our shareholders or to cast any votes at such meetings. You will only be able to exercise the voting rights which are carried by the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs indirectly by giving voting instructions to the depositary in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you may vote only by giving voting instructions to the depositary. If we instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, then upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will try, as far as practicable, to vote the underlying Class A ordinary shares which are represented by your ADSs, in accordance with your instructions. If we do not instruct the depositary to ask for your instructions, the depositary may still vote in accordance with instructions you give, but it is not required to do so. You will not be able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs unless you cancel and withdraw such shares and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting. Under our currently effective memorandum and articles of association, the minimum notice period required for convening a general meeting is ten calendar days. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice of the meeting to withdraw the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs and to vote directly with respect to any specific matter or resolution to be considered and voted upon at the general meeting. In addition, under our currently effective memorandum and articles of association, for the purposes of determining those shareholders who are entitled to attend and vote at any general meeting, our directors may close our register of members and/or fix in advance a record date for such meeting, and such closure of our register of members or the setting of such a record date may prevent you from withdrawing the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs and becoming the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date, so that you would not be able to attend the general meeting or to vote directly. If we ask for your instructions, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you. We have agreed to give the depositary prior notice of shareholder meetings. Nevertheless, we cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A Ordinary shares represented by your ADSs. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs are voted and you may have no legal remedy if the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs are not voted as you requested.

We are entitled to amend the deposit agreement and to change the rights of ADS holders under the terms of such agreement, or to terminate the deposit agreement, without the prior consent of the ADS holders.

We are entitled to amend the deposit agreement and to change the rights of the ADS holders under the terms of such agreement, without the prior consent of the ADS holders. We and the depositary may agree to amend the deposit agreement in any way we decide is necessary or advantageous to us. Amendments may reflect, among other things, operational changes in the ADS program, legal developments affecting ADSs or changes in the terms of our business relationship with the depositary. In the event that the terms of an amendment may prejudice a substantial existing right of ADS holders, ADS holders will only receive 30 days’ advance notice of the amendment, and no prior consent of the ADS holders is required under the deposit agreement. At the time an amendment becomes effective, ADS holders are considered, by continuing to hold their ADSs, to have agreed to the amendment and to be bound by the amended deposit agreement. Furthermore, we may decide to terminate the ADS facility at any time for any reason. For example, terminations may occur when we decide to list our shares on a non-U.S. securities exchange and determine not to continue to sponsor an ADS facility, when we become the subject of a takeover or a going-private transaction, or when we incur the insolvency event. If the ADS facility terminates, ADS holders will receive at least 90 days’ prior notice, but no prior consent is required from them. The depositary may also terminate the deposit agreement if the depositary has told us that it would like to resign and we have not appointed a new depositary within 60 days. Under the circumstances that we decide to make an amendment to the deposit agreement that may prejudice a substantial existing right of ADS holders or terminate the deposit agreement, the ADS holders’ choices will be limited to selling their ADSs or surrendering their ADSs and becoming direct holders of the underlying Class A ordinary shares, but will have no right to any compensation whatsoever. No assurance can be given that a sale of ADSs could be made at a price satisfactory to the holder in such circumstances.

You may not be able to participate in rights offerings and may experience dilution of your holdings.

We may, from time to time, distribute rights to our shareholders, including rights to acquire securities. Under the deposit agreement, the depositary will not distribute rights to holders of ADSs unless the distribution and sale of rights and the securities to which these rights relate are either exempt from registration under the Securities Act with respect to all holders of ADSs, or are registered under the provisions of the Securities Act. The depositary may, but is not required to, attempt to sell these undistributed rights to third parties, and may allow the rights to lapse. We may be unable to establish an exemption from registration under the Securities Act, and we are under no obligation to file a registration statement with respect to these rights or underlying securities or to endeavor to have a registration statement declared effective. Accordingly, holders of ADSs may be unable to participate in our rights offerings and may experience dilution of their holdings as a result.

The depositary for the ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, except in limited circumstances, which could adversely affect your interests.

Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, if you do not vote, the depositary will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs at shareholders’ meetings if:

The effect of this discretionary proxy is that if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, you cannot prevent our Class A ordinary shares underlying your ADSs from being voted, except under the circumstances described above. This may make it more difficult for shareholders to influence the management of our company. Holders of our ordinary shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy.

You may not receive distributions on ordinary shares or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to you.

The depositary of the ADSs has agreed to pay to you the cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on Class A ordinary shares or other deposited securities underlying the ADSs, after deducting its fees and expenses. You will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of the underlying Class A ordinary shares represented by your ADSs. However, the depositary is not responsible if it decides that it is unlawful or impractical to make a distribution available to any holders of ADSs. For example, it would be unlawful to make a distribution to a holder of ADSs if it consists of securities that require registration under the Securities Act but that are not properly registered or distributed under an applicable exemption from registration. The depositary may also determine that it is not feasible to distribute certain property through the mail. Additionally, the value of certain distributions may be less than the cost of mailing them. In these cases, the depositary may determine not to distribute such property. We have no obligation to register under U.S. securities laws any ADSs, ordinary shares, rights or other securities received through such distributions. We also have no obligation to take any other action to permit the distribution of ADSs, ordinary shares, rights or anything else to holders of ADSs. This means that you may not receive distributions we make on our ordinary shares or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical for us to make them available to you. These restrictions may cause a material decline in the value of the ADSs.

You may be subject to limitations on transfer of your ADSs.

Your ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems it expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may close its books from time to time for a number of reasons, including in connection with corporate events such as a rights offering, during which time the depositary needs to maintain an exact number of ADS holders on its books for a specified period. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of the ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary thinks it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason.

ADSs holders may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to claims arising under the deposit agreement, which could result in less favorable outcomes to the plaintiffs in any such action.

The deposit agreement governing the ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares provides that, to the fullest extent permitted by law, ADS holders waive the right to a jury trial of any claim they may have against us or the depositary arising out of or relating to our shares, the ADSs or the deposit agreement, including any claim under the U.S. federal securities laws.

If we or the depositary opposed a jury trial demand based on the waiver, the court would determine whether the waiver was enforceable based on the facts and circumstances of that case in accordance with the applicable state and federal law. To our knowledge, the enforceability of a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver in connection with claims arising under the federal securities laws has not been finally adjudicated by the United States Supreme Court. However, we believe that a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision is generally enforceable, including under the laws of the State of New York, which govern the deposit agreement, by a federal or state court in the City of New York, which has non-exclusive jurisdiction over matters arising under the deposit agreement. In determining whether to enforce a contractual pre-dispute jury trial waiver provision, courts will generally consider whether a party knowingly, intelligently and voluntarily waived the right to a jury trial. We believe that this is the case with respect to the deposit agreement and the ADSs. It is advisable that you consult legal counsel regarding the jury waiver provision before entering into the deposit agreement.

If you or any other holders or beneficial owners of ADSs bring a claim against us or the depositary in connection with matters arising under the deposit agreement or the ADSs, including claims under federal securities laws, you or such other holder or beneficial owner may not be entitled to a jury trial with respect to such claims, which may have the effect of limiting and discouraging lawsuits against us and the depositary. If a lawsuit is brought against either or both of us and the depositary under the deposit agreement, it may be heard only by a judge or justice of the applicable trial court, which would be conducted according to different civil procedures and may result in different outcomes than a trial by jury would have, including results that could be less favorable to the plaintiffs in any such action.

Nevertheless, if this jury trial waiver provision is not permitted by applicable law, an action could proceed under the terms of the deposit agreement with a jury trial. No condition, stipulation or provision of the deposit agreement or ADSs serves as a waiver by any holder or beneficial owner of ADSs or by us or the depositary of compliance with any substantive provision of the U.S. federal securities laws and the rules and regulations promulgated thereunder.

We will incur increased costs as a result of being a public company, particularly after we cease to qualify as an “emerging growth company.”

Our independent registered public accounting firm has not conducted an audit of our internal control over financial reporting. It is possible that, had our independent registered public accounting firm conducted an audit of our internal control over financial reporting, such firm might have identified additional material weaknesses and deficiencies. We are subject to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as well as rules subsequently implemented by the SEC and Nasdaq, which impose various requirements on the corporate governance practices of public companies. As a company with less than US$1.235 billion in revenues for our last fiscal year, we qualify as an “emerging growth company” pursuant to the JOBS Act. An emerging growth company may take advantage of specified reduced reporting and other requirements that are otherwise applicable generally to public companies. These provisions include exemption from the auditor attestation requirement under Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or Section 404, in the assessment of the emerging growth company’s internal control over financial reporting. The JOBS Act also permits an emerging growth company to delay adopting new or revised accounting standards until such time as those standards apply to private companies.

We expect these rules and regulations to increase our legal and financial compliance costs and to make some corporate activities more time-consuming and costly. After we are no longer an “emerging growth company,” we expect to incur significant expenses and devote substantial management effort toward ensuring compliance with the requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 and the other rules and regulations of the SEC. For example, as a public company, we will need to increase the number of independent directors and adopt policies regarding internal controls and disclosure controls and procedures. We also expect that operating as a public company will make it more difficult and more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage. In addition, we will incur additional costs associated with our public company reporting requirements. It may also be more difficult for us to find qualified persons to serve on our board of directors or as executive officers. We are currently evaluating and monitoring developments with respect to these rules and regulations, and we cannot predict or estimate with any degree of certainty the amount of additional costs we may incur or the timing of such costs.

ITEM 4. INFORMATION ON THE COMPANY

A.History and Development of the Company.

We commenced operations in October 2011 through Shenzhen Fangdd Network Technology Co., Ltd., or Fangdd Network, a company incorporated in China. Since its inception, Fangdd Network has focused on providing online real estate services. In September 2013, we incorporated Fangdd Cayman, in the Cayman Islands as our holding company. In October 2013, Fangdd Cayman established a wholly owned subsidiary, Fangdd BVI, in the British Virgin Islands, which in turn established Fangdd HK, a wholly owned subsidiary in Hong Kong in November 2013. In March 2014, Shenzhen Fangdd, was incorporated as a PRC subsidiary wholly owned by Fangdd HK.

Due to restrictions imposed by PRC laws and regulations on foreign ownership of companies engaged in value-added telecommunication services and certain other businesses, Shenzhen Fangdd entered into a series of contractual arrangements, as amended and restated, with Fangdd Network and its shareholders, through which we obtained control over Fangdd Network and its subsidiaries. As a result, we are regarded as the primary beneficiary of Fangdd Network and its subsidiaries. We treat them as our consolidated affiliated entities under U.S. GAAP, and have consolidated the financial results of these entities in our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP. We refer to Shenzhen Fangdd as our WFOE, and to Fangdd Network as the VIE in this annual report. We depend on these contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders to conduct most aspects of our operation. For more details and risks related to the VIE, please see “—C. Organizational Structure—Contractual Agreements with the VIE and its Shareholders” and “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure.”

On November 1, 2019, ADSs representing our Class A ordinary shares commenced trading on the Nasdaq Global Market under the symbol “DUO.” We raised approximately US$71.6 million in net proceeds from the issuance of new shares from our initial public offering after deducting underwriting commissions and the offering expenses payable by us. In November 2019, the underwriters exercised their over-allotment option and we raised approximately US$6.1 million in net proceeds from the issuance of new shares after deducting underwriting discounts and offering expenses payable by us.

In December 2022, we sold and issued 1,000,000 ADSs at a price of US$0.6976 per ADS in a registered direct offering and raised approximately US$470,708 in net proceeds after deducting the placement agent fees and offering expenses. We intend to use the net proceeds from this offering for general corporate purposes.

On February 12, 2023, we issued a convertible promissory note due on August 12, 2023 in a principal amount of US$21 million pursuant to a convertible note purchase agreement dated January 13, 2023. The note bore an interest rate of 8% per annum, payable on the maturity date. At any time before the maturity date, the note was convertible in whole into Class A ordinary shares at the option of the noteholder. On March 9, 2023, the noteholder elected to convert the note into an aggregate of 18,750,000,000 Class A ordinary shares at an amended conversion price of US$0.00112 per share. After the issuance of the conversion shares, the note was cancelled and no amount of the note remains outstanding.

On March 3 2023, we sold and issued 322,164 ADSs at a price of US$0.6208 per ADS in a registered direct offering and raised approximately US$82,460 in net proceeds after deducting the offering expenses. We intend to use the net proceeds from this offering for general corporate purposes.

Our board of directors approved the creation of Class C ordinary shares in November 2022 for the purpose of enhancing our ability to execute long-term business strategies and enabling new equity financing while maintaining a stable corporate structure and senior management team. Holders of Class C ordinary shares have certain special voting rights and conversion rights. In particular, each Class C ordinary share entitles the holder thereof to 10,000 votes on all matters subject to a shareholder vote and is convertible into one Class A ordinary share at the option of the holder thereof. Please refer to “Item 10. Additional Information—B. Memorandum and Articles of Association” in this annual report on Form 20-F for a summary of the rights of Class C ordinary shares. As of March 31, 2023, we had issued 5,700,000 Class C ordinary shares to ZX INTERNATIONAL LTD, a company controlled by Mr. Xi Zeng, our chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer. See “Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions—B. Related Party Transactions—Share Issuance to ZX INTERNATIONAL LTD and Mr. Xi Zeng” for more information.

Our principal executive offices are located at Room 602, Unit B4, Kexing Science Park, 15 Keyuan Road, Technology Park, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China. Our telephone number at this address is +86 755 2699 8968. Our registered office is situated at Maples Corporate Services Limited, PO Box 309, Ugland House, Grand Cayman, KY1-1104, Cayman Islands. Our agent for service of process in the United States is Puglisi & Associates, located at 850 Library Avenue, Suite 204, Newark, Delaware 19711.

SEC maintains an internet site that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC on www.sec.gov. You can also find information on our website www.fangdd.com. The information on our website should not be deemed a part of this annual report.

B.Business Overview.

We are a customer-oriented PropTech company in China, focusing on providing real estate transaction digitalization services. We operate a real estate-focused online marketplace for real estate transactions and related services in China. Our marketplace connects real estate sellers, agents, buyers, financial institutions and other service providers as part of a vibrant ecosystem and a self-reinforcing network, enabling marketplace participants to transact real estate assets with efficiency at lowered costs. We provide all participants with one-stop digital real estate transaction services and seamless transaction experience through our reliable and extensive property listings, SaaS solutions and intelligent matching algorithms.

Our marketplace is driven by the following core attributes:

Marketplace Participants

Real Estate Sellers

Real estate sellers who put their assets, such as new properties, existing parking spaces and apartments on our marketplace can utilize our digital marketing services and vast agent network to expand their potential customer base in order to boost sales. Our massive agent database, comprehensive agent profiles and advanced matching capabilities allow us to recommend the most suitable agents to real estate sellers based on their specific experience, expertise and client bases. We have established robust business relationships with high-quality real estate developers in China. Our cooperation with developers covers various of their properties and we receive from them preferable terms from time to time, such as above-market commission rates. Our typical commission rates before paying the agents for their services range from 2% to 4% and there were 1,613 new property projects on our marketplace in 2022.

Real Estate Agents

We have developed a rigorous set of rules to effectively regulate and manage agent activities in our marketplace. Our onboarding procedures ensure that we engage with capable and trustworthy agents. After agents set up their online shops in our marketplace, we continuously guide them and monitor the quality of their services. For example, we customarily sign a strategic cooperation agreement with agencies and require agencies and their agents to follow our guidance in their sales and commission process. We also develop specific sales strategies based on our research and data analysis results, and closely follow agents’ performance in serving real estate buyers. If agents are found to be non-compliant with our policies and instructions, we provide further guidance and issue warnings or take punitive measures for significant violations in certain cases. Agents are also required to report the status of each transaction so that we can offer in-time and customized strategies, such as asking them to follow up with real estate buyers at regular intervals. In 2022, we had over 143.7thousand active agents on our marketplace.

Real Estate Buyers

We attract real estate buyers to our marketplace mainly through our reliable and extensive property listings, transparent agent information and online transaction experience in our marketplace. We provide a verified and continuously updated database with our core management system to help real estate agents serve real estate buyers efficiently and effectively. In 2022, our marketplace facilitated total closed-loop transactions of RMB22.5 billion (US$3.3 billion) in GMV, due to the continued downturn status of China’s real estate market, the impact of COVID-19 restrictive measures, and the heightened credit risks of developers.

Other Service Providers

We also expand our partnership with other service providers to further enhance our ecosystem. Our marketplace assists financial institutions in making informed lending decisions by providing them with analysis based on agents’ historical transactions and operational data to complement their traditional credit-assessing models. We also connect real estate service providers through our marketplace with real estate buyers, tenants and landlords who have formulated needs for other home services such as decorations and maintenance, facilitating home service providers’ promotion efforts on relevant services.

Our Product and Service Offerings

Building on the real estate transaction digitalization capabilities integrated into our marketplace, we offer innovative value-added products and services including access to extensive listings and rich property-related data tailoring to the needs of different marketplace participants. For example, we have rolled out a suite of SaaS solutions to facilitate the digitalization of real estate transactions for real estate sellers, agents and real estate buyers, respectively. With these comprehensive SaaS solutions, together with our easy-to-use website, advanced data analysis capabilities, diversified financial solutions as well as agent-oriented training and guidance, our marketplace have changed the traditional way of transacting, thereby increasing real estate transactions transparency, efficiency and experience.

Products and Services for Real Estate Sellers

The products and services we provide to real estate sellers mainly include:

We launched Property Cloud, a SaaS solution for real estate sellers, in December 2020. By interfacing with Duoduo Sales, Property Cloud connects real estate sellers with agents directly. Developers can list properties, publish commission rates and set other terms in connection with sales on Property Cloud. Once posted on Property Cloud, all of such information will be automatically pushed to agents and those who are interested can directly contact developers through Duoduo Sales. As such, developers could access a large number of agents online at low costs, while agents can conduct commission settlement online. At the same time, developers have access to a variety of functionalities on Property Cloud, including online sales office management, online customer management, online channel management, online cost control, thereby breaking the traditional barriers of channel marketing, reducing marketing costs, improving transaction matching efficiency and achieving the transformation to digital marketing.

We partner with real estate sellers to list their properties on our marketplace. Upon receiving the property information, we create digital portraits for the properties by labeling the price, location, public facilities and other information of the properties, and uploading them to our marketplace. We then match the properties based on their property portraits to the most suitable agents, facilitating transaction efficiency of transactions on our marketplace.

Products and Services for Real Estate Agents

The products and services we provide to real estate agents mainly include:

Products and Services for Real Estate Buyers

The products and services we provide to real estate buyers mainly include:

Services for Other Service Providers

The services we provide to other service providers include:

Our Sources of Monetarization

Through our digitalization capabilities, we have built the necessary infrastructure and rules on our marketplace, and provided digitalization products and services to real estate sellers, agents, real estate buyers and other related service providers on the marketplace to facilitate efficient online transactions across different business scenarios and achieve positive interactions with marketplace participants.

Our primary sources of revenue are (i) property transaction services and (ii) innovation initiatives and other value-added services. For property transaction services, we earn base commission revenue by charging commission fees when real estate buyers and sellers close transactions through the marketplace. Our innovation initiatives and other value-added services include SaaS solutions and other value-added services which are provided based on our deep understanding of marketplace participants’ problems and needs, such as financial services, to help enhance user transaction experience. For our SaaS solutions, we charge marketplace participants software subscription fees.

Technology Systems and Infrastructure

We are a data and technology-driven online marketplace. Our marketplace is built on infrastructure with comprehensive functionalities that support the entire lifecycle of real estate transactions from initial users acquisition and leads generation to listing management and transaction workflow management, and further to payment and closing management. Empowered by our marketplace infrastructure, we have developed our database, AI and big data-driven technologies specifically for our marketplace participants, to support our transaction-focused business model. Our marketplace provides participants with access to extensive data and powerful data analytics tools and is designed to be highly scalable while maintaining a high level of data security.

For example, our marketplace maintained a verified and continuously updated database that covers 157 million properties in China as of December 31, 2022. When we receive new listing information, we label the prices, locations, public facilities and other information of these assets, upload them to our marketplace and form asset portraits, which will be recommended to the most suitable agents and sellers to facilitate transactions. Meanwhile, when new property information is submitted to our marketplace, we compare this information with existing data in our database to filter out those that are inconsistent. We have also developed and strictly follow a verification procedure, including automatic data analytics algorithms, owner interviews and cross-agent verification to ensure the reliability and authenticity of any new listing information. After recording the properties into our database, we continue to update and expand our database through automated data scanning as well as through agents and property owners who contribute information to our marketplace.

Data Processing and Analytics

We generate extensive data from marketplace activities and our proprietary data processing system is the foundation of our business. Once the original property data and marketplace behavioral data are collected, we store, cleanse, structure and encrypt data for modeling exercises in an aggregated and anonymized fashion. Our system delivers speed and scalability, providing data and analytics support across our product and service offerings. Our big data analytics engines can perform real-time analytics as well as utilize offline algorithms to make relevant and targeted content and service recommendation to marketplace users.

We have optimized our database structure to make it more suitable for AI and machine learning processes. We have developed comprehensive profile systems of agents and real estate buyers on our marketplace based on their viewing and transaction histories and other marketplace activities. We also use artificial intelligence-powered algorithms such as content-based collaborative filtering to predict a marketplace participant’s interests based on analyzing the preferences of multiple participants and to construct big data recommendation engines. Our big data analytic capabilities enable us to achieve data fusion across business scenarios upon our core database and provide our marketplace participants with highly efficient, intelligent and tailored data analytics services. Our team of data scientists and engineers works continually to optimize our proprietary analytical models and improve our analytic capabilities. For example, to ensure the authenticity of our listings, we improved traditional deep learning algorithms by using the machine learning technique of deep neural network model to identify inaccurate or fraudulent listing information. We also use machine learning to value properties, order listing displays and generate relevant real estate headlines for marketplace users.

Data Security and Privacy

We consider the protection of the personal privacy of each of our marketplace users to be of paramount importance. To ensure the confidentiality and integrity of our data, we maintain a comprehensive and rigorous data protection program. We gain access to vast amounts of behavioral data through real estate transactions completed in our marketplace and products and services used by our marketplace participants, and we encrypt and store the data on our own and third-party cloud servers, which are protected by firewalls. We connect real estate buyers with suitable agents and, other than basic contact information, we do not provide individual real estate buyers’ information to any agent, or vice versa, in our marketplace.

We employ a variety of technical solutions to prevent and detect risks and vulnerabilities in user privacy and data security, such as encryption, firewall, vulnerability scanning and log audit. For instance, we store and transmit all user data in an encrypted format and have a team of professionals who participate in new product and feature development and are dedicated to the ongoing review and monitoring of data security practices. In addition, our core data can only be accessed through computers designated for authorized use. We maintain data access logs that record all attempted and successful access to our data and conduct automated monitoring and routine manual verification of large data requests. We also have clear and strict authorization and authentication procedures and policies in place. Our employees only have access to data that are directly relevant and necessary to their job responsibilities and for limited purposes and are required to verify authorization upon every access attempt. See also “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Historically there have been occurrences of unexpected network interruptions and security breaches, including “hacking” or computer virus attacks. Such disruptions in the future would cause delays or interruptions of service, damage our reputation and result in a loss of users of our products, which could harm our business, operating results, and financial condition.”

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Research and Product Development

We invest substantial resources in research and product development to improve our technology, develop new products that are complementary to existing ones and find ways to better support real estate professionals and other marketplace participants. As of December 31, 2022, we had 61 software and product development personnel, constituting more than 28.8% of all company employees. Our research and product development teams are primarily organized into five groups: (1) software engineers that develop and implement products and services and our operations support personnel, (2) big data engineers that monitor and build our database and data processing platform, (3) data scientists that conduct data modeling and algorithm researches, (4) product and user experience developers that research into, create and manage new products, and (5) site reliability engineers that ensure the availability, stability, reliability and security of our entire technology platform.

Sales and Marketing

We rely on our marketplace and digitalization service capabilities for real estate buyer-side marketing and have not relied heavily on advertising. Our marketing team is responsible for engaging with real estate agents and marketing our products and services. We have built a marketing team that is experienced in the internet, real estate and finance industries. As of December 31, 2022, our marketing team consists of 131 persons located in 15 cities across China.

Intellectual Property

Our copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, domain names and other intellectual property are important to our business. We rely on intellectual property laws and contractual arrangements with our key employees and others to protect our intellectual property rights. Despite these measures, we cannot assure you that we will be able to prevent unauthorized use of our intellectual property, which would adversely affect our business.

As of the date of the annual report, we own 252 registered trademarks in China and Hong Kong, 32 registered patents, 62 registered software copyrights in China and 5 registered domain names, which are material to our business. Our patents and copyrights form the core of our technology infrastructure and allow us to develop innovative products and services to drive our competitive advantages. Our trademarks and domains are crucial for our reputation, brand recognition and marketing activities.

Competition

The business of providing online real estate services in China is becoming increasingly competitive. As the online real estate services industry in China is relatively new and constantly evolving, our current or future competitors may be able to better position themselves to compete as the industry matures. As our marketplace is transaction-oriented, our main competitors primarily focus on providing real estate listings, transaction services and home renovation services. To a lesser extent, we also compete with traffic-oriented platforms, which primarily focus on attracting online traffic and providing listing and advertising services.

Our other competitors at the national level include traditional real estate brokerage companies. We have also faced, and may continue to face, competition from regionally focused players providing regional real estate listings together with localized services. In addition, we compete with other companies that offer e-commerce, listing and similar services. Facing ever-increasing competition, we will continue to focus on enhancing our transaction-oriented business model, enriching immense and verified property database and maintaining extensive geographic coverage. On the other hand, with our newly developed SaaS solutions that offer a new business model for various participants, we aim to diversify future revenue streams and to work towards a sustainable growth.

Seasonality

Our revenue and operating results have fluctuated in the past from quarter to quarter due in part to seasonal fluctuations in the real estate market. Typically, our revenue is lowest in the first quarter of each year, primarily due to the reduced number of transactions during the Chinese New Year holiday. Our revenue is typically higher during the fourth quarter of a year. However, due to our limited operating history, the seasonal trends that we have experienced in the past may not apply to, or be indicative of, our future operating results.

Regulation

This section sets forth a summary of the most significant rules and regulations that affect our business activities in China.

Regulations on Offshore Offering

On December 28, 2021, the CAC and 12 other PRC regulatory authorities jointly issued the Cyber Security Review Measures. The Cyber Security Review Measures provide, among others, (i) the purchase of cyber products and services by critical information infrastructure operators that affects or may affect national security and the data processing activities engaged in by network platform operators that affect or may affect national security shall be subject to the cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office, the department which is responsible for the implementation of cybersecurity review under the CAC; and (ii) the network platform operators with personal information data of more than one million users that seek for listing in a foreign country are obliged to apply for a cybersecurity review by the Cybersecurity Review Office. However, the Cyber Security Review Measures do not provide any explanation or interpretation of “affect or may affect national security”, and Chinese government may have broad discretion in interpreting and enforcing these laws and regulations. As the Cyber Security Review Measures were recently released thus its interpretation and implementation remain substantially uncertain, we cannot predict the impact of the review measures, if any, at this stage, and we will closely monitor and assess the statutory developments in this regard. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—The approval of and the filing with the CSRC, CAC or other PRC governmental authorities may be required in connection with our future offshore offerings under PRC law and if required, we cannot predict whether or how soon we will be able to obtain such approval or complete such filing.”

On February 17, 2023, the CSRC promulgated a set of new regulations, including the Trial Administrative Measures of Overseas Securities Offerings and Listings by Domestic Companies, or the Trial Measures, and five supporting guidelines. The regulations came into effect on March 31, 2023. The Trial Measures refine the regulatory system by subjecting both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing activities to the CSRC filing-based administration. Requirements for filing entities, time points and procedures are specified. Where a PRC domestic company indirectly offers and lists securities in overseas markets, the issuer shall designate a major domestic operating entity to file with the CSRC. Companies that are already listed overseas as of March 31, 2023 are not required to make an immediate filing with the CSRC until a subsequent offering, in which case a filing should be made with the CSRC within three business days after the offering is completed. Failure to complete the filing required by the Trial Measures may result in a warning and a fine between RMB1 million and RMB10 million. However, uncertainty remains as to the interpretation and implementation of these regulations upon promulgation.

On November 14, 2021, the CAC published the draft Regulations for the Administration of Cyber Data Security, or the Draft Data Security Regulations, for public comments until December 13, 2021. The Draft Data Security Regulations require that a data processor who processes personal information of more than 1 million individuals shall (i) go through the cyber security review if it intends to be listed in a foreign country; (ii) report to the local CAC within 15 working days once identifying any important data. Where data processors conduct merger, reorganization separation, or otherwise, the data recipient shall continue to perform its data security protection obligations, and the data processor shall report to the local competent department if personal information of more than one million people is involved. The Draft Data Security Regulations also require a data processor processing important data or being listed outside China shall carry out data security assessment annually by itself or through a third-party data security service provider and submit assessment report to local agency of the CAC. As no detailed rules or implementation of the Draft Data Security Regulations have been issued, the CAC and the PRC governmental authorities may have wide discretion in the interpretation and enforcement of these regulations. It also remains uncertain whether the future regulatory changes would impose additional restrictions on companies like us. We cannot predict the impact of the Draft Data Security Regulations, if any, at this stage, and we will closely monitor and assess any development in the rulemaking process. If the enacted version of the Draft Data Security Regulations requires any clearance of cybersecurity review and other specific actions to be completed by companies like us, we face uncertainties as to whether such clearance can be timely obtained, or at all. If we are not able to comply with the cybersecurity and data privacy requirements in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to government enforcement actions and investigations, fines, penalties, or suspension of our non-compliant operations, among other sanctions, which could materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

On July 6, 2021, the relevant PRC governmental authorities made public the Opinions on Strictly Cracking Down Illegal Securities Activities in Accordance with the Law. These opinions emphasized the need to strengthen the administration over illegal securities activities and the supervision on overseas listings by China-based companies and proposed to take effective measures, such as promoting the construction of relevant regulatory systems to deal with the risks and incidents faced by China-based overseas-listed companies. As these opinions are recently issued, official guidance and related implementation rules have not been issued yet and the interpretation of these opinions remains unclear at this stage. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—The approval of and the filing with the CSRC, CAC or other PRC governmental authorities may be required in connection with our future offshore offerings under PRC law and if required, we cannot predict whether or how soon we will be able to obtain such approval or complete such filing.” As of the date of this annual report, we have not received any inquiry, notice, warning, or sanctions regarding offshore offering from the CSRC or any other PRC governmental authorities.

Regulations on Company Establishment and Foreign Investment

The establishment, operation and management of companies in China is governed by the PRC Company Law, as amended in 2005, 2013 and 2018. According to the PRC Company Law, companies established in the PRC are either limited liability companies or joint stock limited liability companies. The PRC Company Law applies to both PRC domestic companies and foreign-invested companies. Prior to the effectiveness of the Foreign Investment Law (2019), the establishment procedures, approval procedures, registered capital requirements, foreign exchange matters, accounting practices, taxation and labor matters of a wholly foreign-owned enterprise were regulated by the Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprise Law of the PRC, as amended on September 3, 2016, and the Implementation Regulation of the Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprise Law, as amended on February 19, 2014. In September 2016, the National People’s Congress Standing Committee published the Decision on Revising Four Laws including the Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprise Law of the People’s Republic of China, which changes the previous “filing or approval” procedure for foreign investments in China. Pursuant to the Provisional Administrative Measures on Establishment and Modifications (Filing) for Foreign Investment Enterprises promulgated by MOFCOM on October 8, 2016 and amended on July 30, 2017 and on June 29, 2018, establishment and changes of foreign investment enterprises not subject to the approval under the special entry management measures shall be filed with the relevant commerce authorities.

On March 15, 2019, the National People’s Congress promulgated the Foreign Investment Law, or the Foreign Investment Law (2019), which became effective on January 1, 2020 and replaced the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Enterprise Law, the Sino-Foreign Cooperative Joint Venture Enterprise Law and the Wholly Foreign-owned Enterprise Law to become the legal foundation for foreign investment in the PRC. The Foreign Investment Law (2019) implements the administrative system of pre-entry national treatment plus negative list to foreign investment. Pursuant to the Foreign Investment Law (2019), national treatment shall be applied to the foreign investment beyond to the negative list to be promulgated by the State Council. The Foreign Investment Law (2019) mainly focuses on the foreign investment promotion, foreign investment protection and foreign investment management.

The Foreign Investment Law (2019) defines “foreign investment” as any investment activity directly or indirectly carried out in the PRC by foreign individuals, enterprises or other entities (the “Foreign Investors”), and specifically stipulates four forms of investment activities as foreign investments, namely, (i) establishment of a foreign-invested enterprise in the PRC by a Foreign Investor, either individually or collectively with any other investor; (ii) obtaining shares, equities, property shares or any other similar rights or interests of an enterprise in the PRC by a Foreign Investor; (iii) investment in any new construction project in the PRC by a Foreign Investor, either individually or collectively with any other investor; and (iv) investment in any other means stipulated under laws, administrative regulations or provisions prescribed by the State Council.

On December 26, 2019, the State Council promulgated the Implementation Regulations of Foreign Investment Law which became effective on January 1, 2020. The Implementation Regulations of Foreign Investment Law provides detailed implementation rules for the principles of investment protection, investment promotion and investment management in the Foreign Investment Law (2019).

On January 1, 2020, MOFCOM and the State Administration for Market Regulation of the PRC promulgated the Measures for the Reporting of Foreign Investment Information, repealing the Provisional Administrative Measures on Establishment and Modifications (Filing) for Foreign Investment Enterprises. Where foreign investors carry out investment activities directly or indirectly within China, foreign investors or foreign-funded enterprises shall report investment information to commerce departments.

Pursuant to the Provisions for Guiding the Foreign Investment Direction promulgated by the State Council on February 11, 2002 and effective on April 1, 2002, projects with foreign investment fall into four categories, namely encouraged, permitted, restricted and prohibited. Projects with foreign investment that are encouraged, restricted and prohibited shall be listed in the Catalog of Guidance on Industries for Foreign Investment, or the Catalog. Projects with foreign investment that do not fall into the categories of encouraged, restricted or prohibited projects shall be the permitted projects with foreign investment. The permitted projects with foreign investment shall not be listed in the Catalog. On July 28, 2018, the Negative List replaces the special administrative measures for the access of foreign investment specified in the Catalog. On December 27, 2020, MOFCOM and NDRC promulgated the Catalog of Industries for Encouraging Foreign Investment (2020 version), or the Catalog (2020). On December 27, 2021, MOFCOM and NDRC promulgated the Special Administrative Measures (Negative List) for Foreign Investment Access (Edition 2021), or the Negative List (2021), which became effective on January 1, 2022. Pursuant to the Negative List (2021), foreign investors should refrain from investing in any of prohibited sectors specified in the Negative List (2021), and foreign investors are required to obtain the permit for access to other sectors that are listed in the Negative List (2021) but not classified as “prohibited”. The Negative List (2021) covers 12 industries. Fields not included in the Negative List (2021) shall be managed according to the principle of equal treatment of domestic and foreign investment. Fields not listed in the Negative List (2021) and Catalog (2020) are generally open for foreign investments unless specifically restricted by other PRC laws.

Current PRC laws and regulations place certain restrictions and conditions on foreign ownership of certain areas of businesses. For example, pursuant to the Negative List (2021), the proportion of foreign investment in a value-added telecommunications business (excluding e-commerce business, domestic multi-party communications, store-and-forward and call centers) shall not exceed 50%. The Administrative Provisions on Foreign- Invested Telecommunications Enterprises (Revised in 2022), promulgated by the State Council, among others, no longer requires the main foreign investor who invests in a value-added telecommunications business in the PRC to possess prior experience in operating value-added telecommunications businesses and a proven track record of business operations. Accordingly, none of our subsidiaries is eligible to provide commercial internet content or other value-added telecommunication service, which wholly foreign-owned companies are restricted from conducting in China. To comply with PRC laws and regulations, we conduct such business activities through the VIE in China.

There are substantial uncertainties regarding the interpretation and application of PRC laws and regulations, including, but not limited to, the laws and regulations governing our and the VIE’s business, or the enforcement and performance of our contractual arrangements with the VIE and its shareholders. These laws and regulations may be subject to change, and their official interpretation and enforcement may involve substantial uncertainty. New laws and regulations that affect existing and proposed future businesses may also be applied retroactively. Due to the uncertainty and complexity of the regulatory environment, we cannot assure you that we and the VIE would always be in full compliance with applicable laws and regulations, the violation of which may have an adverse effect on our and the VIE’s business and our reputation. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Corporate Structure—If the PRC government deems that our contractual arrangements with the VIE do not comply with PRC regulatory restrictions on foreign investment in the relevant industries, or if these regulations or the interpretation of existing regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties or be forced to relinquish our interests in those operations.”

Regulation on Value-Added Telecommunications Services

On September 25, 2000, the Telecommunications Regulations of the People’s Republic of China, or the Telecom Regulation, was issued by the PRC State Council, which was amended and became effective on February 6, 2016, as the primary governing law on telecommunication services by PRC companies. The Telecom Regulation draws a distinction between “basic telecommunication services” and “value-added telecommunication services.” The Catalog of Telecommunications Business (2015 Edition), or the Telecommunication Catalog, which was amended and became effective on June 6, 2019, was issued as an appendix to the Telecom Regulations to categorize telecommunications services as basic or value-added, and information services via public communication networks such as fixed networks, mobile networks and Internet are classified as value-added telecommunications services. According to the Telecommunication Catalog, value-added telecommunication services include online data processing and transaction processing business, internet information services business and other value-added telecommunication services.

On March 1, 2009, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, issued the Administrative Measures for Telecommunications Business Operating Permit, or the Telecom Permit Measures, which took effect on April 10, 2009. The Telecom Permit Measures were later amended on July 3, 2017 and the amendment took effect on September 1, 2017. The Telecom Permit Measures confirm that there are two types of telecom operating licenses for operators in China, namely, licenses for basic telecommunications services and licenses for value-added telecommunications services, or the value-added telecommunications license. The license granted will set out the operation scope of the enterprise which details the permitted activities of such enterprise. An approved telecommunication services operator shall conduct its business in accordance with the specifications listed in its value-added telecommunications license. In addition, a value-added telecommunications license holder is required to obtain approval from the original permit-issuing authority in respect of any change to its shareholders.

According to the Administrative Regulations on Foreign-Invested Telecommunications Enterprises, as most recently amended in 2022, foreign-invested value-added telecommunications enterprises must be in the form of a Sino-foreign equity joint venture. The regulations limit the ultimate capital contribution percentage by foreign investor(s) in a foreign-invested value-added telecommunications enterprise to 50% or less.

In 2006, the predecessor to the MIIT issued the Circular of the Ministry of Information Industry on Strengthening the Administration of Foreign Investment in Value-added Telecommunications Business, according to which a foreign investor in the telecommunications service industry of China must establish a foreign-invested enterprise and apply for a telecommunications businesses operation license. This circular further requires that: (i)PRC domestic telecommunications business enterprises must not lease, transfer or sell a telecommunications businesses operation license to a foreign investor through any form of transaction or provide resources, offices and working places, facilities or other assistance to support the illegal telecommunications services operations of a foreign investor; (ii) value-added telecommunications enterprises or their shareholders must directly own the domain names and trademarks used by such enterprises in their daily operations; (iii) each value-added telecommunications enterprise must have the necessary facilities for its approved business operations and maintain such facilities in the regions covered by its license; and (iv) all value-added telecommunications enterprises are required to maintain network and internet security in accordance with the standards set forth in relevant PRC regulations. If a license holder fails to comply with the requirements in the circular and cure such non-compliance, the MIIT or its local counterparts have the discretion to take measures against such license holder, including revoking its license for value-added telecommunications business.

Regulations on Internet Information Services

On September 25, 2000, the State Council promulgated the Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services, or the Internet Measures, which were later amended on January 8, 2011. Under the Internet Measures, a value-added telecommunications license shall be obtained before conducting profitable internet information services in the PRC, and a filing requirement shall be satisfied before conducting non-profitable internet information service. The provision of information services through mobile apps is subject to the PRC laws and regulations governing Internet information services.

The content of the internet information is highly regulated in China and pursuant to the Internet Measures, the PRC government may shut down the websites of internet information providers and revoke their value-added telecommunications licenses (for profitable Internet information services) if they produce, reproduce, disseminate or broadcast internet content that contains content that is prohibited by law or administrative regulations. Internet information services operators are also required to monitor their websites. They may not post or disseminate any content that falls within the prohibited categories, and must remove any such content from their websites, save the relevant records and make a report to the relevant governmental authorities. In addition, as the internet information service providers, under the Civil Code of the PRC they shall bear tortious liabilities in the event they infringe upon other person’s rights and interests through the internet. Where an internet service provider conducts tortious acts through internet services, the infringed person has the right to request the internet service provider take necessary actions such as deleting contents, screening and de-linking. Failing to take necessary actions after being informed, the internet service provider will be subject to its liabilities with regard to the additional damages incurred. Where an internet service provider knows that an internet user is infringing upon other persons’ rights and interests through its internet service but fails to take necessary actions, it is jointly and severally liable with the internet user.

Regulations on Mobile Internet Applications

In June 2016, the State Internet Information Office promulgated the Administrative Provisions on Mobile Internet Application Information Services, or the Mobile Application Administrative Provisions, which was last amended in June 2022 and became effective on August 1, 2022. Pursuant to the Mobile Application Administrative Provisions, a mobile internet app refers to an app software that runs on mobile smart devices providing information services. Mobile internet app providers refer to the owners or operators of mobile internet apps providing information services.

The Mobile Application Administrative Provisions set forth the relevant requirements on the app information service providers and the app store service providers. The CAC and its local branches shall be responsible for the supervision and administration of nationwide and local app information respectively. App providers shall strictly fulfill their responsibilities of information security management, and perform the following duties: (i) conduct real identity information authentication based on mobile phone numbers, identity document numbers or unified social credit codes for users who apply for registration; (ii) be responsible for the results of the presentation of information content, shall not produce or disseminate illegal information, and shall consciously prevent and resist harmful information; (iii) not induce users to download apps by means of false advertisement, bundled downloads, or other acts, or via machine or manual click farming and comment control, or by using illegal and harmful information; (iv) immediately take remedial measures, promptly notify users and report the same to the relevant competent authorities in accordance with regulations when an app has risks such as security defects and vulnerabilities; (v) perform the obligation of ensuring data security, establish a sound whole-process data security management system, take technical measures to ensure data security and other security measures, strengthen risk monitoring, and shall not endanger national security or public interests, or damage the legitimate rights and interests of others when carrying out app data processing activities; and (vi) formulate and disclose management rules, and sign service agreements with registered users to clarify the relevant rights and obligations of both parties.

Regulation on Information Security and Privacy Protection

Internet information in China is regulated from a national security standpoint. The National People’s Congress, or the NPC, promulgated the Decisions on Preserving Internet Security in December 2000 and amended in August 2009, which subject violators to potential criminal punishment in China for any effort to: (i) gain improper entry into a computer or system of strategic importance; (ii) disseminate politically disruptive information; (iii) leak state secrets; (iv) spread false commercial information; or (v) infringe intellectual property rights. The Ministry of Public Security has promulgated measures that prohibit use of the internet in ways which, among other things, result in a leak of state secrets or a spread of socially destabilizing content. If an internet information service provider violates these measures, competent authorities may revoke its operating license and shut down its websites.

In recent years, PRC government authorities have enacted laws and regulations on internet use to protect personal information from any unauthorized disclosure. Under the Several Provisions on Regulating the Market Order of Internet Information Services, promulgated by the MIIT in December 2011 and effective March 2012, an internet information service provider may not collect any user personal information or provide any such information to third parties without the consent of the user. An internet information service provider must expressly inform the users of the method, content and purpose of the collection and processing of such user personal information and may only collect such information necessary for the provision of its services. An internet information service provider is also required to properly maintain the user’s personal information, and in case of any leak or likely leak of the user’s personal information, the internet information service provider must take immediate remedial measures and, in severe circumstances, immediately report to the telecommunications authority. Moreover, pursuant to the PRC Criminal Law lastly amended in November 2020, any individual or entity that (i) sells or discloses any citizen’s personal information to others in a way violating the applicable law, or (ii) steals or illegally obtains any citizen’s personal information, shall be subject to criminal penalty in severe situation. Any internet service provider that fails to fulfill the obligations related to internet information security administration as required by applicable laws and refuses to rectify upon orders, shall be subject to criminal penalty for the result of (i) any dissemination of illegal information in large scale; (ii) any severe effect due to the leakage of the client’s information; (iii) any serious loss of criminal evidence; or (iv) other severe situation. In addition, the Interpretations of the Supreme People’s Court and the Supreme People’s Procuratorate of the PRC on Several Issues Concerning the Application of Law in Handling Criminal Cases of Infringing Personal Information, promulgated in May 2017 and effective June 2017, clarified certain standards for the conviction and sentencing of the criminals in relation to personal information infringement. Further, the NPC promulgated a new National Security Law, effective July 2015, to replace the former National Security Law and covers various types of national security including technology security and information security.

The PRC Cyber Security Law, promulgated on November 7, 2016 and effective on June 1, 2017, prohibits individuals or entities from obtaining personal information through theft or other illegal ways or selling or otherwise illegally disclosing personal information. The PRC Cyber Security Law requires a network operator, including internet information service providers among others, to adopt technical measures and other necessary measures in accordance with applicable laws and regulations as well as compulsory national and industrial standards to safeguard the safety and stability of network operations, effectively respond to network security incidents, prevent illegal and criminal activities, and maintain the integrity, confidentiality and availability of network data. The PRC Cyber Security Law emphasizes that any individuals and organizations that use networks must not endanger network security or use networks to engage in unlawful activities such as those endangering national security, economic order and the social order or infringing the reputation, privacy, intellectual property rights and other lawful rights and interests of others. Any violation of the provisions and requirements under the PRC Cyber Security Law may subject an internet service provider to warnings, fines, confiscation of illegal gains, revocation of licenses, cancellation of filings, closedown of websites or even criminal liabilities. Furthermore, MIIT’s Rules on Protection of Personal Information of Telecommunications and Internet Users promulgated in July 2013, effective September 2013, contain detailed requirements on the use and collection of personal information as well as security measures required to be taken by telecommunications business operators and internet information service providers.

On June 10, 2021, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China, or the SCNPC, promulgated the Data Security Law, which took effect in September 2021. The Data Security Law sets forth data security and privacy related compliance obligations on entities and individuals carrying out data related activities. The Data Security Law also introduces a data classification and layered protection system based on the importance of data and the degree of impact on national security, public interests or legitimate rights and interests of individuals or organizations when such data is tampered with, destroyed, leaked or illegally acquired or used. In addition, the Data Security Law provides a national security review procedure for those data activities that may affect national security, and imposes export restrictions on certain data and information. According to the PRC National Security Law, the State shall establish institutions and mechanisms for national security review and regulation, and conduct national security review on certain matters that affect or may affect PRC national security, such as key technologies and IT products and services. According to the effective Cybersecurity Review Measures, online platform/website operators of certain industries may be identified as critical information infrastructure operators by the Cyberspace Administration of China, once they meet standard as stated in the National Cybersecurity Inspection Operation Guide, and such operators may be subject to cybersecurity review. In early July 2021, regulatory authorities in China launched cybersecurity investigations with regard to several China-based companies that are listed in the United States.

On August 20, 2021, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of China promulgated the Personal Information Protection Law of the PRC, or the Personal Information Protection Law, which took effect in November 2021. As the first systematic and comprehensive law specifically for the protection of personal information in the PRC, the Personal Information Protection Law provides, among others, that (i) an individual’s separate consent shall be obtained before operation of such individual’s sensitive personal information, e.g., biometric characteristics and individual location tracking, (ii) personal information operators operating sensitive personal information shall notify individuals of the necessity of such operations and the influence on the individuals’ rights, (iii) if personal information operators reject individuals’ requests to exercise their rights, individuals may file a lawsuit with a People’s Court.

The VIE, as an internet information service provider, is therefore subject to the regulations related to information security. The VIE has adopted data security, data recovery and backup measures to comply with these regulations. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Actual or alleged failure to comply with data privacy and protection laws and regulations could have a serious adverse effect on our reputation, and discourage current and potential clients from doing business with us.”

Regulation Relating to Real Estate Brokerage and Agency

According to the Law of the PRC on Administration of Urban Real Estate, which is promulgated by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, or the SCNPC, on July 5, 1994 and lastly amended on August 26, 2019 and became effective on January 1, 2020, the real-estate intermediary agencies include real-estate brokerage agencies. Real-estate intermediary agencies are required to have: (a) their own names and entities; (b) fixed premises to offer services; (c) necessary property and fund; (d) adequate number of professionals; and (e) other conditions stipulated by laws and administrative regulations.

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In April 2001, the Ministry of Construction promulgated the Management Methods on the Sale of Commercial Houses. When real-estate developers entrust intermediary agencies to sell commercial houses, the entrustee agencies shall be those legally incorporated and granted industrial and commercial business licenses. The real-estate developers shall sign written commissioning contract with the intermediary agencies to specify the commissioning period, commissioning rights, and rights and obligations of the client and entrustee. The entrusted intermediary agencies shall present the buyer relevant certificates and selling commissioning letter of the commercial houses. When selling commercial houses, the entrusted intermediary agencies shall introduce to the buyer authentic housing information. The entrusted intermediary agencies shall never sell non-conforming commercial houses. The entrusted intermediary agencies are never allowed for any charges beyond the commission when selling the commercial houses. Only those salespersons that have undergone professional training are allowed to engage in the commercial house selling business.

According to the Administrative Measures for Real Estate Brokerage, promulgated on January 20, 2011 and amended on March 1, 2016 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-rural Development, NDRC and Ministry of Human Resources and Social Securities, the real-estate brokerage agencies and their branches shall file with the construction (real-estate) supervising department of the local municipality/city/county within 30 days after obtaining the business license. The construction (real-estate) supervising department of the local municipality/city/county shall publish the name, residence, legal representative (executive partner) or responsible person, registered capital and real-estate agents of the agencies and their branches. The real-estate brokerage services shall be uniformly undertaken by real-estate brokerage agencies, with the service remunerations collected by the agencies collectively. Branches shall undertake businesses in the name of the parental real-estate agencies. Real-estate agents are never allowed to undertake agent services on his/her own behalf. Real-estate agencies and agents are never allowed to: (a) counterfeit and disseminate the price-up information, or gang up with real-estate developers or operators to reserve premises for higher price and manipulate the market price; (b) conceal the real housing transaction information from the interested parties, and earn price discrepancies between lower buy-in price and higher sell-out (rent) price; (c) solicit business through improper means such as concealing, fraud, coercing or bribing, or lure/force real estate buyers into transaction; (d) disclose or improperly use the personal information/business secret of real estate buyers to seek unjust profits; (e) for illegal purposes such as evasion of property transaction tax, sign contracts of different prices for the same house; (f) change the internal structure of the house and divide them for rental; (g) embezzle and misappropriate the property transaction capital; (h) buy or rent his/her own agented house; (i) offer brokerage services to non-conforming indemnificatory houses or prohibited-for-sales houses; and (j) conduct other behaviors prohibited by laws and regulations.

According to the Opinions on Strengthening the Management over Real-Estate Agencies to Promote Healthier Development of the Industry as jointly promulgated and implemented on July 29, 2016 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-rural Development, NDRC, MIIT, People’s Bank of China, SAT, State Administration for Industry and Commerce and China Banking Regulatory Commission, governmental departments impose stricter supervision upon real-estate sales agencies. Such agencies are required to check the ownership information of the property and the identification for the client before publication of the property information. Upon approval of the client, the agency shall verify the ownership information in the real-estate competent department and prepare specifications of the house conditions. The property information published shall be authentic, comprehensive and accurate. The agency shall not publish the information of the properties without the prior written authorization of owner and shall not conceal the mortgage status of the property or conceal other relevant information of the transaction. The real estate agency shall not in any form force client to take service of any financial institution it appointed. Property information shall be removed within 2 working days upon its sale or rent.

Regulations on Small Loan Business

Pursuant to the Guiding Opinions on the Pilot Operation of Small Loan Companies promulgated by the CBRC and the PBOC on May 4, 2008, to apply for setting up a small loan company, the applicant shall file an application in due form with the competent department of the provincial government, and, upon approval, it shall apply to the local administrative department for industry and commerce for handling the registration formalities and get the business license. The Guiding Opinions on the Pilot Operation of Small loan Companies and other relevant regulations impose various requirements on the small loan company and its business, such as the requirements with respect to the corporate structure, the major sources of funds of a small loan company, the loan interest ceiling, the floor interest rate and the percentage of the balance of the capital borrowed from banking financial institutions.

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Pursuant to the Notice on Implementation Plan for Specific Rectification for Risks in Small Loan Companies Conducting the Online Small Loan Business issued by relevant authority in December 2017, local branches of the P2P Online Lending Working Group conducted examination and inspection of online small loan companies that concluded by the end of January 2018. Depending on the inspection results these local regulatory authorities may require the online small loan companies they inspected to take rectification measures within specified periods, may revoke the operation approvals of non-compliant companies and may order non-compliant companies to cease business operations.

On September 7, 2020, China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission issued Notice of Strengthening the Supervision and Administration of Small Loans Companies in order to strengthen the administration, regulate the business operation, mitigate risks, and advance the development of small loan business.

Regulations on Intellectual Property Rights

Copyright

On September 7, 1990, the SCNPC promulgated the PRC Copyright Law, which was amended in 2001, 2010 and 2020. The implementing regulations of the PRC Copyright Law was promulgated in 2002 and amended in 2013. The PRC Copyright Law and its implementation regulations are the principal laws and regulations governing the copyright related matters. Pursuant to the amended PRC Copyright Law, products disseminated over the internet and software products, among others, are entitled to copyright protections. Registration of copyright is voluntary, and it is administrated by the China Copyright Protection Center.

The State Council and National Copyright Administration, or the NCA, have promulgated various rules and regulations related to protection of software in China, including the Regulations on Protection of Computer Software promulgated by State Council on January 30, 2013 and effective since March 1, 2013, and the Measures for Registration of Copyright of Computer Software promulgated by NCA on February 20, 2002 and effective since the same date. According to these rules and regulations, software owners, licensees and transferees may register their rights in software with the NCA or its local branches and obtain software copyright registration certificates. Although such registration is not mandatory under PRC law, software owners, licensees and transferees are encouraged to go through the registration process and registered software rights may be entitled to better protections.

Domain Name

On August 24, 2017, MIIT promulgated Administrative Measures for Internet Domain Names, repealing the Domain Name Measures since November 1, 2017. The efforts to undertake internet domain name services as well as the operation, maintenance, supervision and administration thereof and other relevant activities within the territory of the PRC shall thereafter be made in compliance with Administrative Measures for Internet Domain Names. In accordance with the Measures on the Regulation of Domain Name Disputes promulgated by the CNNIC, which became effective on September 1, 2014, domain name dispute can be resolved by a domain name dispute resolution institution recognized by the CNNIC.

Trademark

The PRC Trademark Law, adopted in 1982 and last amended in 2019, with its implementation rules adopted in 2002 and amended in 2014, protects registered trademarks. The Trademark Office of the State Administration for Industry and Commerce handles trademark registrations and grants a protection term of ten years to registered trademarks. Trademark license agreements must be filed with the Trademark Office for record.

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Patent

The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress adopted the PRC Patent Law in 1984 and amended it in 1992, 2000, 2008 and 2020, respectively, and the latest version of which became effective on June 1, 2021. A patentable invention or utility model must meet three conditions: novelty, inventiveness and practical applicability. Patents cannot be granted for scientific discoveries, rules and methods for intellectual activities, methods used to diagnose or treat diseases, animal and plant breeds or substances obtained by means of nuclear transformation. The Patent Office under the State Intellectual Property Office is responsible for receiving, examining and approving patent applications. A patent is valid for a twenty-year term for an invention and a ten-year term for a utility model and a design under the currently effective PRC Patent Law, starting from the application date. The protection period has been amended in the recent amendment which will become effective on June 1, 2021. The terms of protection for an invention and a utility patent will still be twenty years and ten years, respectively. The term of protection for a design patent will be extended from ten years to fifteen years. Except under certain specific circumstances provided by law, any third-party user must obtain consent or a proper license from the patent owner to use the patent, or else the use will constitute an infringement of the rights of the patent holder.

Regulations on Internet Infringement

According to the Civil Code of the PRC, which was promulgated by NPC on May 28, 2020 and came into effect on January 1, 2021, an internet user or an internet service provider that infringes upon the civil rights or interests of others through using the internet assumes tort liability. If an internet user infringes upon the civil rights or interests of another through using the internet, the person being infringed upon has the right to notify and request the internet service provider whose internet services are facilitating the infringement to take necessary measures including the deletion, blocking or disconnection of an internet link. If, after being notified, the internet service provider fails to take necessary measures in a timely manner to end the infringement, it will be jointly and severally liable for any additional harm caused by its failure to act.

Regulations Related to Employment

Labor Law and Labor Contracts

According to the Labor Law of the PRC promulgated on July 5, 1994 and amended on August 27, 2009 and December 29, 2018, enterprises shall establish and perfect their system of workplace safety and sanitation, strictly abide by state rules and standards on workplace safety, and educate employees in labor safety and sanitation in the PRC. Labor safety and sanitation facilities shall comply with statutory standards. Enterprises and institutions shall provide employees with a safe workplace and sanitation conditions that are in compliance with relevant laws and regulations of labor protection.

The Labor Contract Law of the PRC promulgated on June 29, 2007 and amended on December 28, 2012, and the Implementation Rules of the Labor Contract Law of the PRC promulgated on September 18, 2008 set out specific provisions in relation to the execution, the terms and the termination of a labor contract and the rights and obligations of the employees and employers. At the time of hiring, the employer shall truthfully inform the employee as to the scope of work, working conditions, working place, occupational hazards, work safety, salary and other matters which the employee requests to be informed about.

Dispatched Employees

According to the Interim Provisions on Labor Dispatch issued on January 24, 2014 and implemented on March 1, 2014 by the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, the employers should strictly control the number of labor dispatch workers, and the number of the dispatched workers shall not exceed 10% of the total amount of their employees.

Pursuant to the Interim Provision on Labor Dispatch, the Labor Contract Law of the PRC and the Implementation Regulations for the Labor Contract, the employers who fail to comply with the relevant requirements on labor dispatch shall be ordered by the labor administrative authorities to make corrections within a stipulated period; where correction is not made within the stipulated period, the employers may be subject to a penalty ranging from RMB5,000 to RMB10,000 per dispatched worker exceeding the 10% threshold.

Social Insurance and Housing Fund

Employers in the PRC are required to contribute, for and on behalf of their employees, to a number of social insurance funds, including funds for pension, for unemployment insurance, for medical insurance, for work-related injury insurance, for maternity insurance and for housing fund. These payments are made to local administrative authorities and the employer who fails to contribute may be fined and be ordered to make up for the outstanding contributions. The various laws and regulations that govern the employers’ obligations to contribute to the social insurance funds include the Social Insurance Law of the PRC promulgated by the SCNPC on October 28, 2010 and amended on December 29, 2018; the Interim Regulations on the Collection and Payment of Social Insurance Premiums, which was promulgated by the State Council on January 22, 1999 and amended on March 24, 2019; the Interim Measures for the Maternity Insurance of Enterprises Employees which was promulgated by the Ministry of Labor on December 14, 1994 and became effective on January 1, 1995; the Regulations on Work-related Injury Insurance, which was promulgated by the State Council on April 27, 2003 and amended on December 20, 2010; and the Regulations on Management of the Housing Fund, which was promulgated and became effective on April 3, 1999 and was amended on March 24, 2002 and on March 24, 2019.

Regulations Related to Foreign Exchange

Regulation on Foreign Currency Exchange

Pursuant to the Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations, as amended on August 5, 2008, Renminbi is freely convertible for current account items, including the distribution of dividends, interest payments, trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, but not for capital account items, such as direct investments, loans, repatriation of investments and investments in securities outside of China, unless prior approval is obtained from State Administration of Foreign Exchange, or the SAFE, and prior registration with SAFE is made.

SAFE promulgated the Notice of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming the Administration of Foreign Exchange Settlement of Capital of Foreign Invested Enterprises, or the SAFE Circular 19, in replacement of the Circular on the Relevant Operating Issues Concerning the Improvement of the Administration of the Payment and Settlement of Foreign Currency Capital of Foreign-Invested Enterprises, or SAFE Circular 142. SAFE further promulgated the Notice of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming and Standardizing the Foreign Exchange Settlement Management Policy of Capital Account, or the SAFE Circular 16, effective on June 9, 2016, which, among other things, amend certain provisions of Circular 19. According to SAFE Circular 19 and SAFE Circular 16, the flow and use of the Renminbi capital converted from foreign currency denominated registered capital of a foreign-invested company is regulated such that Renminbi capital may not be used for business beyond its business scope or to provide loans to persons other than affiliates unless otherwise permitted under its business scope. Violations of SAFE Circular 19 or SAFE Circular 16 could result in administrative penalties.

From 2012, SAFE has promulgated several circulars to substantially amend and simplify the current foreign exchange procedure. Pursuant to these circulars, the opening of various special purpose foreign exchange accounts, the reinvestment of RMB proceeds by foreign investors in the PRC and remittance of foreign exchange profits and dividends by a foreign-invested enterprise to its foreign shareholders no longer require the approval or verification of SAFE. In addition, domestic companies are allowed to provide cross-border loans not only to their offshore subsidiaries, but also to their offshore parents and affiliates. SAFE also promulgated the Circular on Printing and Distributing the Provisions on Foreign Exchange Administration over Domestic Direct Investment by Foreign Investors and the Supporting Documents in May 2013, amended on December 30, 2019, which specifies that the administration by SAFE or its local branches over direct investment by foreign investors in the PRC shall be conducted by way of registration and banks shall process foreign exchange business relating to the direct investment in the PRC based on the registration information provided by SAFE and its branches. In February 2015, SAFE promulgated the Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving the Foreign Exchange Management Policies for Direct Investment, or the SAFE Circular 13, which took effect on June 1, 2015 and was amended on December 30, 2019. SAFE Circular 13 delegates the power to enforce the foreign exchange registration in connection with inbound and outbound direct investments under relevant SAFE rules from local branches of SAFE to banks, thereby further simplifying the foreign exchange registration procedures for inbound and outbound direct investments. On October 23, 2019, SAFE issued the Circular to Further Promote Cross-border Trade and Investment to further ease cross-border trade and investment, according to which foreign non-investment enterprises are allowed to carry out domestic equity investment provided that such investment will not violate applicable special administrative measures (negative list) for foreign investment access and the investment projects shall be authentic and legitimate.

On January 26, 2017, SAFE issued the Circular on Further Advancing Foreign Exchange Administration Reform to Enhance Authenticity and Compliance Reviews, or the SAFE Circular 3, which stipulates several capital control measures with respect to the outbound remittance of profit from domestic entities to offshore entities, including (i) under the principle of genuine transaction, banks shall check board resolutions regarding profit distribution, the original version of tax filing records and audited financial statements; and (ii) domestic entities shall hold income to account for previous years’ losses before remitting the profits.

Regulations on Foreign Exchange Registration of Overseas Investment by PRC Residents

In October 2005, SAFE issued the Circular Concerning the Regulation of Foreign Exchange in Equity Finance and Return Investments by Domestic Residents through Offshore Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 75. The notice requires PRC residents or entities to register or file with the local SAFE branch in the following circumstances: (i) before establishing or controlling any company outside the PRC for the purpose of capital financing, (ii) after contributing their assets or shares of a domestic enterprise into overseas special purpose vehicles, or raising funds overseas after such contributions, and (iii) after any major change in the share capital of the special purpose vehicles without any round-trip investment being made.

In 2014, SAFE issued the SAFE Circular on Relevant Issues Relating to Domestic Resident’s Investment and Financing and Roundtrip Investment through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, replacing the SAFE Circular 75. SAFE Circular 37 regulates foreign exchange matters in relation to the use of special purpose vehicles by PRC residents or entities to seek offshore investment and financing or conduct round trip investment in China. Under SAFE Circular 37, a “special purpose vehicle” refers to an offshore entity established or controlled, directly or indirectly, by PRC residents or entities for the purpose of seeking offshore financing or making offshore investment, using legitimate onshore or offshore assets or interests, while “round trip investment” refers to direct investment in China by PRC residents or entities through special purpose vehicles, namely, establishing foreign-invested enterprises to obtain ownership, control rights and management rights. SAFE Circular 37 provides that, before making a contribution to a special purpose vehicle, PRC residents or entities are required to complete foreign exchange registration with SAFE or its local branch.

In 2015, SAFE promulgated the Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving the Administration of the Foreign Exchange Concerning Direct Investment. This notice has amended SAFE Circular 37 by requiring PRC residents or entities to register with qualified banks rather than SAFE or its local branch in connection with their establishment or control of an offshore entity established for the purpose of overseas investment or financing. PRC residents or entities who had contributed legitimate onshore or offshore interests or assets to special purpose vehicles but had not registered as required before the implementation of the SAFE Circular 37 must register their ownership interests or control in the special purpose vehicles with qualified banks. An amendment to the registration is required if there is a material change with respect to the special purpose vehicle registered, such as any change of basic information (including change of the PRC residents, name and operation term), increases or decreases in investment amount, transfers or exchanges of shares, and mergers or divisions. Failure to comply with the registration procedures set forth in SAFE Circular 37 and the subsequent notice, or making misrepresentations or failing to disclose the control of the foreign-invested enterprise that is established through round-trip investment, may result in restrictions being imposed on the foreign exchange activities of the relevant foreign-invested enterprise, including payment of dividends and other distributions, such as proceeds from any reduction in capital, share transfer or liquidation, to its offshore parent or affiliate, and the capital inflow from the offshore parent, and may also subject relevant PRC residents or entities to penalties under PRC foreign exchange administration regulations.

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Regulations Related to Stock Incentive Plans

SAFE promulgated the Circular of the SAFE on Issues concerning the Administration of Foreign Exchange Used for Domestic Individuals’ Participation in Equity Incentive Plans of Companies Listed Overseas, or the Stock Option Rules, in February 2012, replacing the previous rules issued by SAFE in March 2007. Under the Stock Option Rules and other relevant rules and regulations, PRC residents who participate in a stock incentive plan in an overseas publicly listed company are required to register with SAFE or its local branches and complete certain other procedures. Participants in a stock incentive plan who are PRC residents must retain a qualified PRC agent, which could be a PRC subsidiary of the overseas publicly listed company or another qualified institution selected by the PRC subsidiary, to conduct the SAFE registration and other procedures with respect to the stock incentive plan on behalf of the participants. In addition, the PRC agent is required to amend the SAFE registration with respect to the stock incentive plan if there is any material change to the stock incentive plan or the PRC agent or any other material changes. The PRC agent must apply to SAFE or its local branches on behalf of the PRC residents who have the right to exercise the employee share options for an annual quota for the payment of foreign currencies in connection with the PRC residents’ exercise of the employee share options. The foreign exchange proceeds received by the PRC residents from the sale of shares under the stock incentive plans granted and dividends distributed by the overseas listed companies must be remitted into the bank accounts in the PRC opened by the PRC agents before distribution to such PRC residents.

See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in China—Failure to comply with PRC regulations regarding the registration requirements for employee stock ownership plans or share option plans may subject the PRC plan participants or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions.”

Regulations Related to Dividend Distribution

Foreign investment enterprises in China may pay dividends only out of their accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with the PRC accounting standards and regulations. In addition, foreign investment enterprises in the PRC are required to allocate at least 10% of their accumulated profits each year, if any, to fund certain reserve funds unless these reserves have reached 50% of the registered capital of the enterprises. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. Furthermore, under the Enterprise Income Tax Law, which was amended on February 24, 2017 and on December 29, 2018, the maximum tax rate for the withholding tax imposed on dividend payments from PRC foreign-invested companies to their overseas investors that are not regarded as “resident” for tax purposes is 20%. The rate was reduced to 10% under the Implementing Regulations for the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law issued by the State Council. However, a lower withholding tax rate of 5% might be applied if there is a tax treaty between China and the jurisdiction of the foreign holding companies, such as is the case with Hong Kong, and certain requirements specified by PRC tax authorities are satisfied.

Agreements That Enable Us to Direct Activities of the VIE

Business Operation Agreement. The WFOE, the VIE and the VIE’s shareholders have entered into a business operation agreement, pursuant to which the VIE and its shareholders undertake that without the WFOE’s prior written consent, the VIE shall not enter into any transactions that may have material effects on the VIE’s assets, obligations, rights or business operations. Additionally, the VIE’s shareholders undertake that without the WFOE’s prior written consent, they shall not (i) sell, transfer, pledge or otherwise dispose of any rights associated with their equity interest in the VIE, (ii) approve any merger or acquisition of the VIE, (iii) take any actions that may have a material adverse effect on the VIE’s assets, businesses and liabilities, or sell, transfer, pledge or otherwise dispose or impose other encumbrances of any assets, businesses or income of the VIE, (iv) request the VIE to declare dividend or make other distribution, (v) amend the VIE’s articles of association, (vi) increase, decrease or otherwise change the VIE’s registered capital. The WFOE may request the VIE to transfer at any time all the intellectual property rights held by the VIE to the WFOE or any person designated by the WFOE. The VIE and certain of its shareholders, including Yi Duan, Jiancheng Li and Xi Zeng, shall be jointly and severally responsible for the performance of their obligations under this agreement. This agreement has a term of ten years, which may be extended upon the WFOE’s unilateral written confirmation prior to the expiry. The VIE has no right of transfer or right of early termination without WFOE’s written confirmation while the WFOE may unilaterally transfer its rights and obligations under this agreement to third parties at any time through written notification and may early terminate this agreement via a 30-day prior written notice.

Powers of Attorney. Each shareholder of the VIE has issued a power of attorney, irrevocably appointing Mr. Jiancheng Li, the director of Shenzhen Fangdd, as such shareholder’s attorney-in-fact to exercise all shareholder rights, including, but not limited to, the right to call shareholders’ meeting, the right to vote on all matters of the VIE that require shareholder approval, and the right to dispose of all or part of the shareholder’s equity interest in the VIE, on behalf of such shareholder. The foregoing authorization is conditioned upon Mr. Jiancheng Li’s continuing directorship at the WFOE and the WFOE’s written consent to such authorization. In the event that Mr. Jiancheng Li ceases to serve as a director of the WFOE or that the WFOE requests the shareholders to terminate the authorization in writing, the power of attorney will terminate immediately and the shareholder shall then appoint any person designated by the WFOE as his or her attorney-in-fact to exercise all shareholder rights. Other than the foregoing circumstances, the power of attorney will remain in force until the termination of the business operation agreement and during its effective term, shall not be amended or terminated without the consent of the WFOE.

Equity Interest Pledge Agreements. Each shareholder of the VIE has entered into an equity interest pledge agreement with the WFOE and the VIE, pursuant to which, the shareholder has pledged all of his or her equity interest in the VIE to the WFOE to guarantee the performance by the VIE and its shareholders of their obligations under the master agreements, which include technology development and application service agreement, the operation maintenance service agreement, the business operation agreement and the option agreements. Each shareholder of the VIE agrees that, during the term of the equity interest pledge agreement, he or she will not dispose of the pledged equity interest or create or allow any encumbrance on the pledged equity interest without the prior written consent of the WFOE. The equity interest pledge agreements remain effective until the VIE and its shareholders discharge all of their obligations under the master agreements. We have registered the equity pledge with the local branches of the Administration for Industry and Commerce in accordance with the PRC Property Rights Law.

Agreements That Allow Us to Receive Economic Benefits from the VIE

Technology Development and Application Service Agreement. The WFOE and the VIE have entered into a technology development and application service agreement, pursuant to which, the WFOE has the exclusive right to provide the VIE with technology development and application services. Without the WFOE’s written consent, the VIE shall not accept any technology development and application services covered by this agreement from any third party. The VIE agrees to pay service fees on an annual basis and at an amount determined by the WFOE after taking into account multiple factors, such as the labor and time consumed for provision of the service, the type and complexity of the services provided, the difficulties in providing the service, the commercial value of services provided and the market price of comparable services. Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, this agreement will remain effective until the WFOE ceases business operations.

Operation Maintenance Service Agreement. The WFOE and the VIE have entered into an operation maintenance service agreement, pursuant to which the WFOE has the exclusive right to provide the VIE with operation maintenance services and marketing services. Without the WFOE’s written consent, the VIE shall not engage any third party to provide the services covered by this agreement. The VIE agrees to pay service fees on an annual basis and at an amount determined by the WFOE after taking into account factors such as the labor cost, facility cost and marketing expenses incurred by the WFOE in providing the services. Unless otherwise agreed by both parties, this agreement will remain effective until the WFOE ceases business operations.

Agreements That Provide Us with the Option to Purchase the Equity Interest in the VIE

Option Agreements. The WFOE, the VIE and each of the VIE’s shareholders have entered into an option agreement, pursuant to which the VIE’s shareholder has irrevocably granted the WFOE an exclusive option, to the extent permitted by PRC law, to purchase, or have its designated person or persons to purchase, at its discretion all or part of the shareholder’s equity interest in the VIE or all or part of the VIE’s assets. The purchase price shall be a nominal price unless where PRC laws and regulations require valuation of the equity interest or the assets, or promulgate other restrictions on the purchase price, or otherwise prohibit purchasing the equity interest or the assets at a nominal price. If the PRC laws and regulations prohibit purchasing the equity interest or the assets at a nominal price, the purchase price shall be equal to the original investment of the equity interest made by such shareholders or the book value of the assets. Where PRC laws and regulations require valuation of the equity interest or the assets or promulgates other restrictions on the purchase price, the purchase price shall be the minimum price permitted under PRC laws and regulations. However, if the minimum price permitted under PRC laws and regulations exceed the original investment of the equity interest or the book value of the assets, the VIE shall reimburse the WFOE the exceed amount after deducting all taxes and fees paid under PRC laws and regulations. The shareholders of the VIE undertake, among other things, that without the WFOE’s prior written consent, they shall not take any actions that may have material effects on the VIE’s assets, businesses and liabilities, nor shall they appoint or replace any directors, supervisors and officers of the VIE. These agreements have terms of ten years, which may be extended upon the WFOE’s written confirmation prior to the expiry.